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'''Thomas Jefferson''' (1743-1826) was the third president of the United States, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[Declaration of Independence]] of 1776, which was based on George Mason's [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]]. Jefferson was also the first secretary of state (1789-1793), and founded the [[Jeffersonian Republicans]] in 1792. This party dominated U.S. politics for many years. Jefferson and the Republicans are closely associated with the view that the size and powers of the federal government should be strictly limited.<ref>"distrusted the federal government because he knew it would grow too large, become disconnected from the people, and be heir to the arrogance, insolence and prideful haughtiness that is the lot of the unrestrained ..." [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/dec/16/pruden-winning-the-war-against-civility/ PRUDEN: Winning the war against ‘civility’] - Editorial in the ''[[Washington Times]]''</ref>

'''Thomas Jefferson''' (1743-1826) was the third president of the United States, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[Declaration of Independence]] of 1776, which was based on George Mason's [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]]. Jefferson was also the first secretary of state (1789-1793), and founded the [[Jeffersonian Republicans]] in 1792. This party dominated U.S. politics for many years. Jefferson and the Republicans are closely associated with the view that the size and powers of the federal government should be strictly limited.<ref>"distrusted the federal government because he knew it would grow too large, become disconnected from the people, and be heir to the arrogance, insolence and prideful haughtiness that is the lot of the unrestrained ..." [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/dec/16/pruden-winning-the-war-against-civility/ PRUDEN: Winning the war against ‘civility’] - Editorial in the ''[[Washington Times]]''</ref>

A friend of France and the French Revolution, and a bitter enemy of Britain in the 1790s, Jefferson soured on France after [[Napoleon]] came to power and ended democracy there. As president, Jefferson purchased the vast Louisiana Territory in 1803, but he was generally ineffective. During the Napoleanic Wars, both Britain and France violated American neutrality and attacked U.S. shipping. Jefferson responded by signing the [[Embargo of 1807]]. The embargo led to economic problems in the United States and was unpopular. It also failed in its purpose of forcing the British to repeal their "Orders in Council" and respect American neutrality. Just before Jefferson left office, the embargo was repealed and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act. Secretary of State [[James Madison]] stated that if economic pressure did not get results, war was inevitable.<ref>Wood, Gordon, ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009), p. 661.</ref> Jefferson was a utopian, enamored with dreamy schemes to end war and bring world peace. Even while pounding the war drums, the Jeffersonians continued to neglect the military. When war came in 1812, the country was tragically unprepared.

A friend of France and the French Revolution, and a bitter enemy of Britain in the 1790s, Jefferson soured on France after [[Napoleon]] came to power and ended democracy there. As president, Jefferson purchased the vast Louisiana Territory in 1803, but he was generally ineffective. During the Napoleanic Wars, both Britain and France violated American neutrality and attacked U.S. shipping. Jefferson responded by signing the [[Embargo of 1807]]. The embargo led to economic problems in the United States and was unpopular. It also failed in its purpose of forcing the British to repeal their "Orders in Council" and respect American neutrality. Just before Jefferson left office, the embargo was repealed and replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act. Jefferson was a utopian, enamored with dreamy schemes to end war and bring world peace.

 

James Madison, Jefferson's hand-picked successor as president, was a loyal follower. After his retirement to Monticello in 1809, Jefferson wrote numerous letters and continued to play a major role in policymaking. Even while pounding the war drums, the Jeffersonians neglected the military. When war with Britain came in 1812, the country was tragically unprepared.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Jefferson was the South's favorite [[Founding Father]], while northerners preferred [[Alexander Hamilton]]. President Franklin Roosevelt did to much to promote the memory of Jefferson, and it now eclipses that of Hamilton. This is ironic since Roosevelt's bloated New Deal regime is hard to reconcile with Jefferson's vision of a minimal federal government. Although Jefferson's party dissolved in 1825, the modern Democratic Party claims Jefferson as its founder. In 1998, DNA testing confirmed an old accusation that Jefferson had fathered children by [[Sally Hemings]], one of his slaves.<ref>"[http://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-brief-account Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account]", Thomas Jefferson Foundation.</ref> Jefferson was bankrupt when he died, so he was not able to free Sally or most of his other slaves.<ref>Schwabach, Aaron. "Thomas Jefferson, Slavery, and Slaves." ''Thomas Jefferson Law Review'' 33, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 1-60. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 16, 2014).</ref>

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Jefferson was the South's favorite [[Founding Father]], while northerners preferred [[Alexander Hamilton]]. President Franklin Roosevelt did to much to promote the memory of Jefferson, and it now eclipses that of Hamilton. This is ironic since Roosevelt's bloated New Deal regime is hard to reconcile with Jefferson's vision of a minimal federal government. Although Jefferson's party dissolved in 1825, the modern Democratic Party claims Jefferson as its founder. In 1998, DNA testing confirmed an old accusation that Jefferson had fathered children by [[Sally Hemings]], one of his slaves.<ref>"[http://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/thomas-jefferson-and-sally-hemings-brief-account Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account]", Thomas Jefferson Foundation.</ref> Jefferson was bankrupt when he died, so he was not able to free Sally or most of his other slaves.<ref>Schwabach, Aaron. "Thomas Jefferson, Slavery, and Slaves." ''Thomas Jefferson Law Review'' 33, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 1-60. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 16, 2014).</ref>

The concepts of natural law, of inviolable rights, and of government by consent were drawn from the [[Republicanism|republican tradition]] that stretched back to ancient Rome and was neither new nor distinctively American. However it was unprecedented for a nation to declare that it would be governed by these propositions. It was Jefferson's almost religious commitment to these republican propositions that is the key to his entire life. He was more than the author of this statement of the national purpose: he was a living example of its philosophy, accepting its ideals as the controlling principles of his own life. Congress adopted the Declaration on July 4, 1776, which became the birthday of the independent nation.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 2</ref>

The concepts of natural law, of inviolable rights, and of government by consent were drawn from the [[Republicanism|republican tradition]] that stretched back to ancient Rome and was neither new nor distinctively American. However it was unprecedented for a nation to declare that it would be governed by these propositions. It was Jefferson's almost religious commitment to these republican propositions that is the key to his entire life. He was more than the author of this statement of the national purpose: he was a living example of its philosophy, accepting its ideals as the controlling principles of his own life. Congress adopted the Declaration on July 4, 1776, which became the birthday of the independent nation.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 2</ref>

When the Declaration was signed, all British forces had been driven out of the 13 colonies, which now became the 13 states. However King [[George III]] refused to give up and of "his" possessions, so the war dragged on until the final American victory at Yorktown in 1781 caused Parliament to change the government in London and sue for peace.

When the Declaration was signed, all British forces had been driven out of the 13 colonies, which now became the 13 states. However King [[George III]] refused to give up and of "his" possessions, so the war dragged on until the final American victory at Yorktown in 1781 caused Parliament to change the government in London and sue for peace.

 

====World impact====

====World impact====

The Declaration immediately sparked serious discussion in Europe and Latin America about the legitimacy of empires. By the 21st century, over 100 countries had their own declarations of independence, modeled in part on the very first one by Jefferson in 1776.<ref> Historians discount the influence of previous declarations. David Armitage, ''The Declaration of Independence: A Global History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Declaration-Independence-Global-History/dp/0674022823/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212623939&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>

The Declaration immediately sparked serious discussion in Europe and Latin America about the legitimacy of empires. By the 21st century, over 100 countries had their own declarations of independence, modeled in part on the very first one by Jefferson in 1776.<ref> Historians discount the influence of previous declarations. David Armitage, ''The Declaration of Independence: A Global History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Declaration-Independence-Global-History/dp/0674022823/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1212623939&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]</ref>

The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written by [[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1777<ref>Atkinson, Kathleen (2007). "[http://www.has.vcu.edu/soc/rdr/Culture.groups/VirginiaReligiousLibertyHistory.pdf Early Virginians and Religious Freedom for Americans]." ''Virginia Commonwealth University''. The World Religions in Richmond Project.</ref>, introduced in the Virginia General Assembly in 1779, and on January 16, 1786 enacted into state law through the assistance of [[James Madison]].<ref>''Virginia Historical Society''. "[http://www.vahistorical.org/onthisday/11686.htm 16 January 1786: Statute for Religious Freedom]." On This Day: Legislative Moments in Virginia History.</ref> The legislation is one of only three accomplishments Jefferson instructed be included in his epitaph.<ref>"[http://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/brief-biography-thomas-jefferson Brief Biography of Thomas Jefferson]." The Jefferson Monticello.</ref> It is often claimed that Jefferson was not Christian but a [[Deist]] and that his use of the term "Nature's God" in the Declaration of Independence was to a vague concept of a designer or even nature itself.<ref>Voelker, David J. (1993). "[http://history.hanover.edu/hhr/hhr93_1.html Who is Nature's God?]" ''Hanover Historical Review 1''.</ref><ref>Isaacson, Walter (2004, July 5). "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,994571,00.html Thomas Jefferson: God of our Fathers]." ''Time Magazine''.</ref> However, such arguments do not mention Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, perhaps because (1) such critics aren't aware of it, or (2) the document very clearly shows Jefferson's beliefs were more refined: {{cquote|An Act for establishing religious Freedom. Whereas, Almighty God hath created the mind free;

The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written by [[Thomas Jefferson]] in 1777<ref>Atkinson, Kathleen (2007). "[http://www.has.vcu.edu/soc/rdr/Culture.groups/VirginiaReligiousLibertyHistory.pdf Early Virginians and Religious Freedom for Americans]." ''Virginia Commonwealth University''. The World Religions in Richmond Project.</ref>, introduced in the Virginia General Assembly in 1779, and on January 16, 1786 enacted into state law through the assistance of [[James Madison]].<ref>''Virginia Historical Society''. "[http://www.vahistorical.org/onthisday/11686.htm 16 January 1786: Statute for Religious Freedom]." On This Day: Legislative Moments in Virginia History.</ref> The legislation is one of only three accomplishments Jefferson instructed be included in his epitaph.<ref>"[http://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/brief-biography-thomas-jefferson Brief Biography of Thomas Jefferson]." The Jefferson Monticello.</ref> It is often claimed that Jefferson was not Christian but a [[Deist]] and that his use of the term "Nature's God" in the Declaration of Independence was to a vague concept of a designer or even nature itself.<ref>Voelker, David J. (1993). "[http://history.hanover.edu/hhr/hhr93_1.html Who is Nature's God?]" ''Hanover Historical Review 1''.</ref><ref>Isaacson, Walter (2004, July 5). "[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,994571,00.html Thomas Jefferson: God of our Fathers]." ''Time Magazine''.</ref> However, such arguments do not mention Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, perhaps because (1) such critics aren't aware of it, or (2) the document very clearly shows Jefferson's beliefs were more refined: {{cquote|An Act for establishing religious Freedom. Whereas, Almighty God hath created the mind free;

That all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens, or by civil incapacitations tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and therefore are a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, who being Lord, both of body and mind yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, as was in his Almighty power to do}} Since Thomas Jefferson called William Penn "the greatest law giver the world has produced"<ref name=phmc>Ries, Linda A. & Stewart, Jane S. "[http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/DAM/charter/charter.html This Venerable Document]." Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission.</ref> it would seem that whatever his beliefs may have become in later years, he derived his original inspiration from the Christian government of William Penn over a century earlier, the [[Province of Pennsylvania]].

That all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens, or by civil incapacitations tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and therefore are a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, who being Lord, both of body and mind yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, as was in his Almighty power to do}} Since Thomas Jefferson called William Penn "the greatest law giver the world has produced"<ref name=phmc>Ries, Linda A. & Stewart, Jane S. "[http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/bah/DAM/charter/charter.html This Venerable Document]." Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission.</ref> it would seem that whatever his beliefs may have become in later years, he derived his original inspiration from the Christian government of William Penn over a century earlier, the [[Province of Pennsylvania]].

==== Autobiography ====

==== Autobiography ====

Jefferson's autobiography provides more insight on the Virginia Statute. Jefferson stated, {{cquote|Where the preamble declares that coercion is a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, an amendment was proposed, by inserting the word "Jesus Christ," so that it should read "a departure from the plan of Jesus Christ, the holy author of our religion." The insertion was rejected by a great majority, in proof that they meant to comprehend, within the mantle of it's protection, the Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Mahometan, the Hindoo, and infidel of every denomination.<ref>Jefferson, Thomas (1821, January 6). "[http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/Jefferson/Autobiography.html Autobiography]."</ref>}} Therefore, it appears that this was actually a more liberal statement by not using the name "Jesus Christ" at the time, much moreso than the clearly Christian origins of William Penn a century earlier. The Virginia legislature wanted to ensure all religions were "within the mantle of it's protection". Nevertheless, while it may have protected the beliefs of atheists or "infidel[s]" as Jefferson stated, the references to a Creator show such a belief was requisite for stating inalienable rights accorded by law.

Jefferson's autobiography provides more insight on the Virginia Statute. Jefferson stated, {{cquote|Where the preamble declares that coercion is a departure from the plan of the holy author of our religion, an amendment was proposed, by inserting the word "Jesus Christ," so that it should read "a departure from the plan of Jesus Christ, the holy author of our religion." The insertion was rejected by a great majority, in proof that they meant to comprehend, within the mantle of it's protection, the Jew and the Gentile, the Christian and Mahometan, the Hindoo, and infidel of every denomination.<ref>Jefferson, Thomas (1821, January 6). "[http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/Jefferson/Autobiography.html Autobiography]."</ref>}} Therefore, it appears that this was actually a more liberal statement by not using the name "Jesus Christ" at the time, much moreso than the clearly Christian origins of William Penn a century earlier. The Virginia legislature wanted to ensure all religions were "within the mantle of it's protection". Nevertheless, while it may have protected the beliefs of atheists or "infidel[s]" as Jefferson stated, the references to a Creator show such a belief was requisite for stating inalienable rights accorded by law.

In 1779 he was elected to succeed [[Patrick Henry]] as governor of Virginia for a one year term. Everything went wrong. British invasions by land and sea, Indian raids in the west, fiscal shortfalls, militia problems, profiteering, personal rivalries, and the shift of the main theater of war to Virginia created more challenges than he could solve.  Re-elected in 1780, he saw the main British army under Cornwallis enter from the South in 1781; the Continental Army commander, General Von Steuben, was outmaneuvered. Jefferson quit office before his successor was named and the legislature had fled; he was almost captured when the British raided Monticello looking for him.  Fortunately Washington arrived with the American and French armies and trapped Cornwallis at Yorktown, where the entire British army surrendered. Later the legislature investigated his administration and vindicated him, but Jefferson was embarrassed.  Jefferson was an efficient, systematic, indefatigable administrator with a knack for getting men to work together smoothly, but his militia could not match the British army. He coped with these problems with a degree of success or failure that remains controversial among scholars. <ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 4</ref>  

In 1779 he was elected to succeed [[Patrick Henry]] as governor of Virginia for a one year term. Everything went wrong. British invasions by land and sea, Indian raids in the west, fiscal shortfalls, militia problems, profiteering, personal rivalries, and the shift of the main theater of war to Virginia created more challenges than he could solve.  Re-elected in 1780, he saw the main British army under Cornwallis enter from the South in 1781; the Continental Army commander, General Von Steuben, was outmaneuvered. Jefferson quit office before his successor was named and the legislature had fled; he was almost captured when the British raided Monticello looking for him.  Fortunately Washington arrived with the American and French armies and trapped Cornwallis at Yorktown, where the entire British army surrendered. Later the legislature investigated his administration and vindicated him, but Jefferson was embarrassed.  Jefferson was an efficient, systematic, indefatigable administrator with a knack for getting men to work together smoothly, but his militia could not match the British army. He coped with these problems with a degree of success or failure that remains controversial among scholars. <ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 4</ref>  

He suffered an irreparable loss when his beloved wife Martha died in 1782 and he gave up all idea of ever marrying again; they had three surviving daughters—Martha (1772–1836), Mary (1778–1804), and Lucy (1782–1784).  

He suffered an irreparable loss when his beloved wife Martha died in 1782 and he gave up all idea of ever marrying again; they had three surviving daughters—Martha (1772–1836), Mary (1778–1804), and Lucy (1782–1784).

 

===''Notes on the State of Virginia''===

===''Notes on the State of Virginia''===

In 1780-83, Jefferson wrote his only book, ''Notes on the State of Virginia.''<ref> See [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/JEFFERSON/toc.html for complete text of ''Notes on the State of Virginia'']</ref> It was written in the form of answers to questions about the geography, natural resources, Indians, government and economy of Virginia, based on his own research. The book was first published in French in Paris in 1785 (and in English in 1787), and immediately Jefferson's scientific reputation in Europe, while debunking some outlandish theories, especially those of the eminent naturalist the [[Comte de Buffon]], to the effect that animals regressed to smaller size in the new world. Jefferson's coup came with the mammoth, the giant extinct animal, five times bigger than an elephant, whose tusks, grinders, and bones had been recently dug up in the western part of the state.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) pp 242-52;  Thomas O. Jewett, [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2000_fall/jefferson_paleon.html "Thomas Jefferson Paleontologist," ''Early America Review'', Fall 2000 online]</ref>

In 1780-83, Jefferson wrote his only book, ''Notes on the State of Virginia.''<ref> See [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/JEFFERSON/toc.html for complete text of ''Notes on the State of Virginia'']</ref> It was written in the form of answers to questions about the geography, natural resources, Indians, government and economy of Virginia, based on his own research. The book was first published in French in Paris in 1785 (and in English in 1787), and immediately Jefferson's scientific reputation in Europe, while debunking some outlandish theories, especially those of the eminent naturalist the [[Comte de Buffon]], to the effect that animals regressed to smaller size in the new world. Jefferson's coup came with the mammoth, the giant extinct animal, five times bigger than an elephant, whose tusks, grinders, and bones had been recently dug up in the western part of the state.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) pp 242-52;  Thomas O. Jewett, [http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2000_fall/jefferson_paleon.html "Thomas Jefferson Paleontologist," ''Early America Review'', Fall 2000 online]</ref>

==1790s==

==1790s==

Jefferson was defeated for president in the election of 1796 by [[John Adams]], but became vice president. When the [[Quasi War]] (that is undeclared war) with France broke out in 1798 and Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition laws]], Jefferson and Madison protested by secretly writing the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] of 1798. They argued the right of state governments to nullify federal laws considered unconstitutional; this was the start of the [[States Rights]] theory that played a role in the coming of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 and still plays a role in Constitutional debates.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 8.</ref>

 

Jefferson was defeated for president in the election of 1796 by [[John Adams]], but became vice president. When the [[Quasi War]] (that is undeclared war) with France broke out in 1798 and Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition laws]], Jefferson and Madison protested by secretly writing the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] of 1798. They argued the right of state governments to nullify federal laws considered unconstitutional; this was the start of the [[States Rights]] theory that played a role in the coming of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 and still plays a role in Constitutional debates.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 8.</ref>

==President: Successful first term, 1801-1805==

==President: Successful first term, 1801-1805==

Jefferson's second term was marked by escalating tensions with both Britain and France (which were at war with each other). Jefferson's use of economic warfare, especially the [[Embargo of 1807]], failed, as he tried to crack down on New England merchants who defied laws that restricted their trade. Jefferson opposed building up the army or navy, insisting that the militia would suffice, aided by small gunboats.   

Jefferson's second term was marked by escalating tensions with both Britain and France (which were at war with each other). Jefferson's use of economic warfare, especially the [[Embargo of 1807]], failed, as he tried to crack down on New England merchants who defied laws that restricted their trade. Jefferson opposed building up the army or navy, insisting that the militia would suffice, aided by small gunboats.   

Most historians judge his military policies a major disaster, for they failed badly when the [[War of 1812]] with Britain came three years after he left office.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 10</ref>

Most historians judge his military policies a major disaster. Neither the militia nor the gunboat proved to be of much use in the [[War of 1812]] with Britain. This war began three years after Jefferson left office.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 10</ref> Jefferson left the White House under a cloud and never ran for office again. The country was drifting toward war with Britain, but it remained woefully unprepared for such a war.<ref>Jefferson's secretary of state, [[James Madison]], stated that if economic pressure did not get results, war was inevitable. (Wood, Gordon, ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009), p. 661.)</ref>

 

Jefferson left the White House under a cloud and never ran for office again.

==Retirement==

==Retirement==