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'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  It is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture is 75% saltpeter, 11.5% sulfur, and 13.5% charcoal. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]].

'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  It is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture is 75% saltpeter, 11.5% sulfur, and 13.5% charcoal. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]].

==Naval warfare==

==Naval warfare==

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref> Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnanace" (2007)</ref>

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref> Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnanace" (2007)</ref>

==Smokeless powder==

==Smokeless powder==

<!-- NOTE to Editors: We request that you please DO NOT change or remove ANYTHING in the [[Second Amendment]]-[[Gun rights]]-related Template links preceded with "{{", such as {{Template:Firearms_topics}} or {{Template:Firearms SAMMI glossary quotation}} Also do not change the Section titles such as Smokeless powder" since they are used in numerous Wiki-links that refer to that section of this article. Thank you. -->Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

To obtain maximum effectiveness from the longer barrel on naval guns, the burning rate of the powder needed to be closely controlled. Much experimentation was performed on the effect of size and shape of powder particles on rate of burning, and larger grains were provided for larger guns. Changes in composition were also experimented with, and in the 1880s brown powder made from under-burnt charcoal was adopted as one means of decreasing the burning rate. A serious drawback of these gunpowders was that only about half of the mixture was converted into gas, the remainder becoming a dense smoke. The French in 1886 adopted smokeless powder made of [[nitrocellulose]] (gun-cotton). Four years later, the Royal Navy began using smokeless powder made from a nitroglycerine base. Both these compounds liberated four to five times as much energy as did the black powder used earlier. In addition, these chemically homogeneous powders could be formed readily into grains so shaped as to control the rate of burning. This gave a uniform pressure, permitting a higher projectile velocity without straining the gun.  

To obtain maximum effectiveness from the longer barrel on naval guns, the burning rate of the powder needed to be closely controlled. Much experimentation was performed on the effect of size and shape of powder particles on rate of burning, and larger grains were provided for larger guns. Changes in composition were also experimented with, and in the 1880s brown powder made from under-burnt charcoal was adopted as one means of decreasing the burning rate. A serious drawback of these gunpowders was that only about half of the mixture was converted into gas, the remainder becoming a dense smoke. The French in 1886 adopted smokeless powder made of [[nitrocellulose]] (gun-cotton). Four years later, the Royal Navy began using smokeless powder made from a nitroglycerine base. Both these compounds liberated four to five times as much energy as did the black powder used earlier. In addition, these chemically homogeneous powders could be formed readily into grains so shaped as to control the rate of burning. This gave a uniform pressure, permitting a higher projectile velocity without straining the gun.  

Despite the adoption of smokeless powder, black powder still continued in use as a burster charge for projectiles until just before World War I, when more powerful and less sensitive explosives were adopted. In the U.S. Navy, trinitrotoluene ([[TNT]]) was adopted for smaller projectiles and Explosive D (ammonium picrate) for the larger ones. These continued in use throughout World War II, although by the end of the war more powerful explosives had come into use, particularly in the smaller antiaircraft projectiles. If the entire spectra of powder uses is considered--torpedoes, mines, aerial bombs, and rockets, as well as large and small projectiles--the trend in explosive development, beginning with the adoption of smokeless powder, was to recognize the special demands of various uses and to formulate specialized compounds tailor-made to particular requirements.

Despite the adoption of smokeless powder, black powder still continued in use as a burster charge for projectiles until just before World War I, when more powerful and less sensitive explosives were adopted. In the U.S. Navy, trinitrotoluene ([[TNT]]) was adopted for smaller projectiles and Explosive D (ammonium picrate) for the larger ones. These continued in use throughout World War II, although by the end of the war more powerful explosives had come into use, particularly in the smaller antiaircraft projectiles. If the entire spectra of powder uses is considered--torpedoes, mines, aerial bombs, and rockets, as well as large and small projectiles--the trend in explosive development, beginning with the adoption of smokeless powder, was to recognize the special demands of various uses and to formulate specialized compounds tailor-made to particular requirements.

==Further Reading - Secondary Research==

==Bibliography==

* Buchanan, Brenda J. ed. ''Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology,'' (1996) 430pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=7n6Cg9znFrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:gunpowder&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=CCS1R96qCJb4tgOG39yXBQ&sig=2n5yoCm5T4NxzhoUBnVPbf2v10A excerpt and text search]

* Buchanan, Brenda J. ed. ''Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology,'' (1996) 430pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=7n6Cg9znFrUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:gunpowder&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&ei=CCS1R96qCJb4tgOG39yXBQ&sig=2n5yoCm5T4NxzhoUBnVPbf2v10A excerpt and text search]

* Cocroft, Wayne. ''Dangerous Energy: The Archaeology of Gunpowder and Military Explosives'' (2000) 222 pages

* Cocroft, Wayne. ''Dangerous Energy: The Archaeology of Gunpowder and Military Explosives'' (2000) 222 pages

*  Norris, John. ''Early Gunpowder Artillery: C.1300-1600'' (2003) 144 pages

*  Norris, John. ''Early Gunpowder Artillery: C.1300-1600'' (2003) 144 pages

* Partington, J. R. ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder'' (1960, reprinted 1999) 420pp; standard history, but weak on Arabic and Chinese uses

* Partington, J. R. ''A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder'' (1960, reprinted 1999) 420pp; standard history, but weak on Arabic and Chinese uses

 

===Primary sources===

===Primary Sources===

* Anderson, William. ''Sketch of the mode of manufacturing gunpowder at the Ishapore mills'' (1862) [http://books.google.com/books?id=-lEBAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:gunpowder&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&ei=rSS1R9TVAoKAsgOJpsyGBQ full text online]

* Anderson, William. ''Sketch of the mode of manufacturing gunpowder at the Ishapore mills'' (1862) [http://books.google.com/books?id=-lEBAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:gunpowder&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&ei=rSS1R9TVAoKAsgOJpsyGBQ full text online]

==References==

====notes====

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[[Category:Weapons]]

 

[[Category : Weapons]]

[[Category : Investments in Tangibles]]