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World History

World History

'''Outline of Lecture:'''

Third Lecture – Ancient History

'''I. Introduction'''

== Introduction ==

This week we cover the great ancient empires in the East:  India and China.  This requires learning about many new religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.  Then we conclude by discussing the rise of Christianity.   

This week we cover the great ancient empires in the East:  India and China.  This requires learning about many new religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.  Then we conclude by discussing the rise of Christianity.   

So let us proceed:

So let us proceed:

'''II. India'''

== India ==

The history of ancient India is sketchy, but we do know that there was a massive immigration into the country around 3000 B.C. by people who called themselves “Aryans” or “nobles”.  They spoke an Indo-European language which formed the basis for Sanskrit, which is the standard ancient language of India just as Latin is the standard ancient language of Europe.  Yet while Latin is a dead language today, Sanskrit is still an official language in India and the scriptures of Hinduism (the most sacred are the Vedas) were written in Sanskrit.

The history of ancient India is sketchy, but we do know that there was a massive immigration into the country around 3000 B.C. by people who called themselves “Aryans” or “nobles”.  They spoke an Indo-European language which formed the basis for Sanskrit, which is the standard ancient language of India just as Latin is the standard ancient language of Europe.  Yet while Latin is a dead language today, Sanskrit is still an official language in India and the scriptures of Hinduism (the most sacred are the Vedas) were written in Sanskrit.

'''A. Ancient India'''

=== Ancient India ===

The roots of ancient India were settlements in the fertile Indus River Valley in what is now Pakistan and northwest India.  This was one of the most fertile region in the world at the time, with plentiful farm products and animals.  The region was surrounded in the north by the Himalaya mountains, protected to the west by the Indu Kush mountains, and insulated from the east by the Great Indian Desert.  Like Egypt, this region had unique geographic protections against invasion by foreign enemies.  Two cities have been discovered there:  Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (huh-ROP-uh).  Other small towns have also been unearthed.  This ancient civilization existed from about 3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C., and its peak was 2600 to 1900 B.C.  It is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization, named after its big city.  These early settlements were long before classical Indian civilization, which was from 300 B.C. to A.D. 500.

The roots of ancient India were settlements in the fertile Indus River Valley in what is now Pakistan and northwest India.  This was one of the most fertile region in the world at the time, with plentiful farm products and animals.  The region was surrounded in the north by the Himalaya mountains, protected to the west by the Indu Kush mountains, and insulated from the east by the Great Indian Desert.  Like Egypt, this region had unique geographic protections against invasion by foreign enemies.  Two cities have been discovered there:  Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (huh-ROP-uh).  Other small towns have also been unearthed.  This ancient civilization existed from about 3000 B.C. to 1300 B.C., and its peak was 2600 to 1900 B.C.  It is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization, named after its big city.  These early settlements were long before classical Indian civilization, which was from 300 B.C. to A.D. 500.

Perhaps the people migrated southeast to what is India today.  The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below).  But the “classical” civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid.  Classical India consisted of two major empires:  the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467).  Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism.  This is one of the oldest and most durable religions in the history of the world, thriving to this day.  India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism.  One of Jesus’ Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

Perhaps the people migrated southeast to what is India today.  The Vedic (pronounced VAYD-ik) civilization existed from about 1500 to 500 B.C., and is credited with developing the religion and culture of Hinduism (explained further below).  But the “classical” civilization of India came later, after this foundation had been laid.  Classical India consisted of two major empires:  the Mauryan Empire (322-185 B.C.) and the Gupta Empire (A.D. 320-467).  Before, during and after these empires there was very little in the way of a central government, and India is best understood by studying its major religion, Hinduism.  This is one of the oldest and most durable religions in the history of the world, thriving to this day.  India is also the origin of two other major religions, Buddhism and Jainism.  One of Jesus’ Apostles (Thomas) went to India and established a Christian community there that thrives to this day.

   

   

'''B. Classical Indian Civilization'''

=== Classical Indian Civilization ===

The beginning of classical India was when the Achaemenid Persians invaded the Indus Valley region in 572 B.C.  Aryans led by Magadha joined together to repel the Persians, but internal religious conflict prevented unity.  Later Alexander the Great invaded in 327 B.C., spreading Greek influence in the region, but he was unable to completely conquer India and did not stay long.  Afterwards, in 322 B.C., Chandragupta Mauryan defeated the Greek general Seleucus and became king, creating the largest Indian empire in its history.  He built an elaborate capital city at Pataliputra, surpassing even the splendor of the great Persian cities.  He built a massive army of 500,000 soldiers and his advisor, Kautilya, wrote a book how to maintain political power called the Arthashastra, in which he wrote that punishment was the key to government.  In other words, Chandragupta was a tough dictator.  But his name is revered, as many Indians to this day bear the last name of “Chandra” or “Gupta”.

The beginning of classical India was when the Achaemenid Persians invaded the Indus Valley region in 572 B.C.  Aryans led by Magadha joined together to repel the Persians, but internal religious conflict prevented unity.  Later Alexander the Great invaded in 327 B.C., spreading Greek influence in the region, but he was unable to completely conquer India and did not stay long.  Afterwards, in 322 B.C., Chandragupta Mauryan defeated the Greek general Seleucus and became king, creating the largest Indian empire in its history.  He built an elaborate capital city at Pataliputra, surpassing even the splendor of the great Persian cities.  He built a massive army of 500,000 soldiers and his advisor, Kautilya, wrote a book how to maintain political power called the Arthashastra, in which he wrote that punishment was the key to government.  In other words, Chandragupta was a tough dictator.  But his name is revered, as many Indians to this day bear the last name of “Chandra” or “Gupta”.

The other major Indian empire was the Gupta empire, from A.D. 320 to 467.  In A.D. 320 Chandra Gupta I, who had no connection to the prior ruling Chandragupta Mauryan, rose to power and conquered the Ganges Valley, and established a new Hindu dynasty.  Trade flourished under his regime with the rest of the world.  He had a policy of religious tolerance.  Intellectual and economic achievement was high.  One famous poet and playwriter was Kalidasa, who wrote plays that were more upbeat and happy than the dreary Greek tragedies.  The Indian number system, known as “Arabic numerals,” were developed and are now used worldwide.  A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda established a university that attracted thousands of students.  A great Indian doctor named Caraka developed a code of medical ethics, and the practice of medicine flourished.  The Indians also developed a form of iron that could withstand rust, and it was used in buildings.  

The other major Indian empire was the Gupta empire, from A.D. 320 to 467.  In A.D. 320 Chandra Gupta I, who had no connection to the prior ruling Chandragupta Mauryan, rose to power and conquered the Ganges Valley, and established a new Hindu dynasty.  Trade flourished under his regime with the rest of the world.  He had a policy of religious tolerance.  Intellectual and economic achievement was high.  One famous poet and playwriter was Kalidasa, who wrote plays that were more upbeat and happy than the dreary Greek tragedies.  The Indian number system, known as “Arabic numerals,” were developed and are now used worldwide.  A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda established a university that attracted thousands of students.  A great Indian doctor named Caraka developed a code of medical ethics, and the practice of medicine flourished.  The Indians also developed a form of iron that could withstand rust, and it was used in buildings.  

'''C. Hinduism'''

=== Hinduism ===

The key to understanding India is its ancient religion of Hinduism, an initially polytheistic religion using multiple gods who were ultimately understood to be part of one god: Brahma, the supreme god of life. The name “Hindu” comes from the word Hindustan, the word for riverland, and the birth of Hinduism was the merger of the Upanishadic and Vedic religious traditions in ancient India.  Moslem invaders of the A.D. 11th and 13th centuries started using the term to describe Indians who were not Buddhists and refused to convert to Islam.  In the A.D. 16th century European merchants and missionaries started using the term also.  But while Hinduism is not limited to one set of clear beliefs, it does represent a common belief system and today there are 1.05 billion adherents to Hinduism in the world, nearly all of whom live in India.  (There is also a significant Christian population in India today, and Mother Theresa won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1980 for her Christian charity work there.)   

The key to understanding India is its ancient religion of Hinduism, an initially polytheistic religion using multiple gods who were ultimately understood to be part of one god: Brahma, the supreme god of life. The name “Hindu” comes from the word Hindustan, the word for riverland, and the birth of Hinduism was the merger of the Upanishadic and Vedic religious traditions in ancient India.  Moslem invaders of the A.D. 11th and 13th centuries started using the term to describe Indians who were not Buddhists and refused to convert to Islam.  In the A.D. 16th century European merchants and missionaries started using the term also.  But while Hinduism is not limited to one set of clear beliefs, it does represent a common belief system and today there are 1.05 billion adherents to Hinduism in the world, nearly all of whom live in India.  (There is also a significant Christian population in India today, and Mother Theresa won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1980 for her Christian charity work there.)   

Hinduism has been the backbone of Indian culture for thousands of years.  The religion enabled Indians to survive countless invasions, such as by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. when he conquered most of the Indus valley.  But he could not change the Indian culture much.  Hinduism has also withstood both Islam and communism.  The Hindu faith is extremely resilient to foreign beliefs, and the survival of Hinduism protected the Indian culture and way of life.

Hinduism has been the backbone of Indian culture for thousands of years.  The religion enabled Indians to survive countless invasions, such as by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. when he conquered most of the Indus valley.  But he could not change the Indian culture much.  Hinduism has also withstood both Islam and communism.  The Hindu faith is extremely resilient to foreign beliefs, and the survival of Hinduism protected the Indian culture and way of life.

   

   

'''D. Jainism'''

=== Jainism ===

Jainism is a branch of Hinduism that emphasizes the principle of non-violence towards all life.  Jainism requires strict vegetarianism, for example.  Jainism was founded by Mahavira (540-468 B.C.), who taught self-denial and non-violence against any form of life.  Jainism’s strict requirements of self-denial caused it to lose popularity, but the religion remained strong and today has over 4 million adherents worldwide (including 7000 in the U.S.).  It influenced Gandhi later in India, and Ralph Waldo Emerson in the United States.  Jainism strictly prohibits abortion.

Jainism is a branch of Hinduism that emphasizes the principle of non-violence towards all life.  Jainism requires strict vegetarianism, for example.  Jainism was founded by Mahavira (540-468 B.C.), who taught self-denial and non-violence against any form of life.  Jainism’s strict requirements of self-denial caused it to lose popularity, but the religion remained strong and today has over 4 million adherents worldwide (including 7000 in the U.S.).  It influenced Gandhi later in India, and Ralph Waldo Emerson in the United States.  Jainism strictly prohibits abortion.

Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.

Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.

'''E. Buddhism'''

=== Buddhism ===

Siddhartha Gautama was a royal Hindu prince who lived from 563 to 483 B.C.  As a young prince he was disturbed by seeing suffering in old people, sick people and, on one occasion, he saw a dead body (corpse).  As a Hindu, Prince Siddhartha believed in reincarnation and the possibility of repeated suffering in many lives disturbed him further.  He meditated for a long time under a tree and emerged from it as the “Enlightened One” who founded a new religion of Buddhism.  Once he became the Buddha, his followers referred to him as “Buddha Shakyamuni” (“Shakya” is the name of his royal family and “Muni” means “Able One.”), or “the Buddha” for short.  The term “Buddha” today can also apply to any “Awakened One” in the religion of Buddhism.   

Siddhartha Gautama was a royal Hindu prince who lived from 563 to 483 B.C.  As a young prince he was disturbed by seeing suffering in old people, sick people and, on one occasion, he saw a dead body (corpse).  As a Hindu, Prince Siddhartha believed in reincarnation and the possibility of repeated suffering in many lives disturbed him further.  He meditated for a long time under a tree and emerged from it as the “Enlightened One” who founded a new religion of Buddhism.  Once he became the Buddha, his followers referred to him as “Buddha Shakyamuni” (“Shakya” is the name of his royal family and “Muni” means “Able One.”), or “the Buddha” for short.  The term “Buddha” today can also apply to any “Awakened One” in the religion of Buddhism.   

There are many statutes of the Buddha, and they vary from country to county to show the Buddha as an inhabitant of the local country.  The hand position (mudras) in the statute shows whether the Buddha is teaching, giving a blessing, or meditating.

There are many statutes of the Buddha, and they vary from country to county to show the Buddha as an inhabitant of the local country.  The hand position (mudras) in the statute shows whether the Buddha is teaching, giving a blessing, or meditating.

'''F. Comparison of Hinduism with Buddhism'''

=== Comparison of Hinduism with Buddhism ===

The biggest difference between Hinduism and Buddhism is that Buddhism is less moral, and welcomes all.  Hinduism is highly moral but based on castes and reincarnation.   

The biggest difference between Hinduism and Buddhism is that Buddhism is less moral, and welcomes all.  Hinduism is highly moral but based on castes and reincarnation.   

The Hindu response to the competition presented by Buddhism was to treat the Buddha as another god of Hinduism (the incarnation of Mahavishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity).  This enabled Hinduism to remain far more popular than Buddhism in India, but not outside India.

The Hindu response to the competition presented by Buddhism was to treat the Buddha as another god of Hinduism (the incarnation of Mahavishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity).  This enabled Hinduism to remain far more popular than Buddhism in India, but not outside India.

'''G. India’s Contributions'''

=== India’s Contributions ===

What can we thank ancient India for?  Our Arabic numerals, which are derived from Hindu numbers.  Also, the game of chess was apparently invented in India, but maybe not until A.D. 500.  The original game lacked the powerful “queen”, and Muslim versions of the game lack the queen to this day.  Vedic mathematics, which is an ancient math system found in the Hindu scriptures the Vedas, is taught to this day.  It enables solving complex math problems orally.  India first discovered the concept of “zero” around the sixth century, which remarkably was not part of mathematics before then and has been essential ever since.   

What can we thank ancient India for?  Our Arabic numerals, which are derived from Hindu numbers.  Also, the game of chess was apparently invented in India, but maybe not until A.D. 500.  The original game lacked the powerful “queen”, and Muslim versions of the game lack the queen to this day.  Vedic mathematics, which is an ancient math system found in the Hindu scriptures the Vedas, is taught to this day.  It enables solving complex math problems orally.  India first discovered the concept of “zero” around the sixth century, which remarkably was not part of mathematics before then and has been essential ever since.   

Today India is more than a country.  It is a subcontinent.  It is vast in size: two-fifths the area of all of Europe.  150 different languages are spoken there today.  In this century India will surpass China as the most populous country in the world.  Even though it has traditionally been a poor country, for decades it has produced more food than it can consume.  The highly religious people of India are advancing the frontiers of medicine, mathematics and many other fields today.

Today India is more than a country.  It is a subcontinent.  It is vast in size: two-fifths the area of all of Europe.  150 different languages are spoken there today.  In this century India will surpass China as the most populous country in the world.  Even though it has traditionally been a poor country, for decades it has produced more food than it can consume.  The highly religious people of India are advancing the frontiers of medicine, mathematics and many other fields today.

'''III. China'''

== China ==

China, like India, is significant because it has so many people.  But there the similarities end.  There is no Hinduism in China.  There is very little ethnic diversity in China, in contrast to India and many Western countries today.  Christianity has struggled to convert the country, and only about 1 out of 9 Chinese are Christian.  That number is due to courageous efforts in the face of much governmental persecution of religion.

China, like India, is significant because it has so many people.  But there the similarities end.  There is no Hinduism in China.  There is very little ethnic diversity in China, in contrast to India and many Western countries today.  Christianity has struggled to convert the country, and only about 1 out of 9 Chinese are Christian.  That number is due to courageous efforts in the face of much governmental persecution of religion.

China has always been isolated by geographic protections.  The highest mountains in the world separate it from India; vast amounts of semi-desert land separated it from Mesopotamia.  In the south flowed the Yangtze river for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course.  In the north was the Yellow river, known for its disastrous tendency to flood.   

China has always been isolated by geographic protections.  The highest mountains in the world separate it from India; vast amounts of semi-desert land separated it from Mesopotamia.  In the south flowed the Yangtze river for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course.  In the north was the Yellow river, known for its disastrous tendency to flood.   

'''A. Ancient China'''

=== Ancient China ===

The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.  By folklore it began when the virtuous and wise man named T’ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty.  The Shang dynasty was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.  By folklore it began when the virtuous and wise man named T’ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty.  The Shang dynasty was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

Early Chinese religion consisted of worshiping a supreme god called “Shang Ti,” or “Lord on High.”  It ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other aspects of nature.  Sacrifices were made of humans to these gods.  When a king died, for example, hundreds of slaves and prisoners would be sacrificed in his honor.  There would also be sacrifices on a smaller scale when a temple or palace was constructed.

Early Chinese religion consisted of worshiping a supreme god called “Shang Ti,” or “Lord on High.”  It ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other aspects of nature.  Sacrifices were made of humans to these gods.  When a king died, for example, hundreds of slaves and prisoners would be sacrificed in his honor.  There would also be sacrifices on a smaller scale when a temple or palace was constructed.

'''B. Confucius'''

=== Confucius ===

The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C.  He lived around the same time as the early Greek philosophers, and taught social ethics to the people.  His real name was Kung Fu-tze, or Master Kung; it was Latin that converted his name to Confucius.  His disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man’s duties to obey a universal natural law.  Moderation in conduct, or “li”, was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one’s family) was the goal.  Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity:  the older a person was, the wiser he must be.  Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C.  He lived around the same time as the early Greek philosophers, and taught social ethics to the people.  His real name was Kung Fu-tze, or Master Kung; it was Latin that converted his name to Confucius.  His disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man’s duties to obey a universal natural law.  Moderation in conduct, or “li”, was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one’s family) was the goal.  Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity:  the older a person was, the wiser he must be.  Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

Ch’in was the first unified Chinese empire, and its king was Shih huang-ti.  It lasted until the Han dynasty rose to power in 206 B.C.  The Han dynasty then lasted 400 years until A.D. 220, and its name is still used to describe the ethnicity of 93% of Chinese today.

Ch’in was the first unified Chinese empire, and its king was Shih huang-ti.  It lasted until the Han dynasty rose to power in 206 B.C.  The Han dynasty then lasted 400 years until A.D. 220, and its name is still used to describe the ethnicity of 93% of Chinese today.

'''C. Taoism'''

=== Taoism ===

Taoism (also known as Daoism) eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religions, probably due to its greater compatibility with the Confucian foundation.  Taoism is more philosophical than the world’s largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.  The symbol for Taoism, for example, is the Taijitu or “Yin and Yang,” in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities:  

Taoism (also known as Daoism) eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religions, probably due to its greater compatibility with the Confucian foundation.  Taoism is more philosophical than the world’s largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.  The symbol for Taoism, for example, is the Taijitu or “Yin and Yang,” in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities:  

Buddhism emphasizes personal salvation more than Taoism.  It makes little difference today in China, where the communist dictators impose atheism as the official religion (lack of religion).  But in ancient China, before communism, these religions competed with each other for followers.  Taoism advanced at the expense of Confucianism, which lost ground until northern rulers reestablished the Mandate of Heaven, the theory that heaven blessed good rulers but overthrew bad ones, which was first used by the Zhou Dynasty to justify overthrowing the Shang Dynasty.  These northern rulers obtained control in A.D. 589 under the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

Buddhism emphasizes personal salvation more than Taoism.  It makes little difference today in China, where the communist dictators impose atheism as the official religion (lack of religion).  But in ancient China, before communism, these religions competed with each other for followers.  Taoism advanced at the expense of Confucianism, which lost ground until northern rulers reestablished the Mandate of Heaven, the theory that heaven blessed good rulers but overthrew bad ones, which was first used by the Zhou Dynasty to justify overthrowing the Shang Dynasty.  These northern rulers obtained control in A.D. 589 under the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

'''D.  Imperial China'''

=== Imperial China ===

The first imperial or national Chinese dynasty was the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty was superb in battle, using chariots and iron weaponry, and that enabled Prince Zheng to conquer all the Chinese states and unify the country.  The Qin dynasty built many internal improvements, such as roads, canals and irrigation, using iron and bronze tools.  It was the Qin dynasty that began to construct the Great Wall, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  China has always feared and been threatened by foreign invaders, and the wall was a way to defend itself.  It is from “Qin” that the name “China” is derived.  But the Qin dynasty’s highly legal approach led to rebellion.

The first imperial or national Chinese dynasty was the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty was superb in battle, using chariots and iron weaponry, and that enabled Prince Zheng to conquer all the Chinese states and unify the country.  The Qin dynasty built many internal improvements, such as roads, canals and irrigation, using iron and bronze tools.  It was the Qin dynasty that began to construct the Great Wall, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  China has always feared and been threatened by foreign invaders, and the wall was a way to defend itself.  It is from “Qin” that the name “China” is derived.  But the Qin dynasty’s highly legal approach led to rebellion.

It was not until A.D. 589 that the Sui Dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government.  Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China also.

It was not until A.D. 589 that the Sui Dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government.  Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China also.

'''E. China’s Contributions'''

=== China’s Contributions ===

What inventions do we owe to ancient China?  A great deal: gunpowder (not until A.D. 850), paper, fireworks, the compass, the umbrella, the fan, spaghetti, acupuncture, bamboo, harvesting silk, and perhaps the first planetarium.  English philosopher Francis Bacon said this about three Chinese inventions:  “Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.”

What inventions do we owe to ancient China?  A great deal: gunpowder (not until A.D. 850), paper, fireworks, the compass, the umbrella, the fan, spaghetti, acupuncture, bamboo, harvesting silk, and perhaps the first planetarium.  English philosopher Francis Bacon said this about three Chinese inventions:  “Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.”

'''IV.  The Rise of Christianity'''

== The Rise of Christianity ==

The ancient world had several founders of great religions, but only one performed miracles:  Jesus of Nazareth.  His resurrection is the single greatest event in the history of the world.  Do we know when it occurred?

The ancient world had several founders of great religions, but only one performed miracles:  Jesus of Nazareth.  His resurrection is the single greatest event in the history of the world.  Do we know when it occurred?