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World History – End of the Middle Ages (Renaissance and Reformation)

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

<br>Seventh Lecture

Seventh Lecture – End of the Middle Ages (Renaissance and Reformation)

<br>D. The Philosophy of the Renaissance

<br>IV. Asia in the Middle Ages

<br>D. Culture, Trade and Religion under the Tang and Song Dynasties

'''I. Introduction'''

 

==Introduction==

This class we recount how the Middle Ages ended:  with the Renaissance and the Reformation.

This class we recount how the Middle Ages ended:  with the Renaissance and the Reformation.

We end this Lecture with a discussion of Asia in the Middle Ages, which was unaffected by both the Renaissance and the Reformation.  Asia had issues of its own.

We end this Lecture with a discussion of Asia in the Middle Ages, which was unaffected by both the Renaissance and the Reformation.  Asia had issues of its own.

'''II. Renaissance'''

==Renaissance==

'''A. Introduction'''

===Introduction===

The Renaissance was a cultural “rebirth” that began in Florence, Italy, but spread to all of Europe from about 1300 to 1600 (1700 in northern Europe).   

The Renaissance was a cultural “rebirth” that began in Florence, Italy, but spread to all of Europe from about 1300 to 1600 (1700 in northern Europe).   

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  That can-do spirit typified the Renaissance.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect and mathematician, first coined the idea of “rebirth” or Renaissance.   

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  That can-do spirit typified the Renaissance.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect and mathematician, first coined the idea of “rebirth” or Renaissance.   

'''B. Artists'''

===Artists===

One of the most lasting legacies of the Renaissance was probably the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states created a perfect environment for the flourishing of art.   

One of the most lasting legacies of the Renaissance was probably the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states created a perfect environment for the flourishing of art.   

Characteristics of the Renaissance paintings include use of realism, perspectives, individual persons (portraits) and frescoes.  Nature was not the subject of many Renaissance paintings; painting themes from nature came later.

Characteristics of the Renaissance paintings include use of realism, perspectives, individual persons (portraits) and frescoes.  Nature was not the subject of many Renaissance paintings; painting themes from nature came later.

'''C. Writers'''

===Writers===

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the vernacular) rather than ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in “The Divine Comedy,” in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died.  The account of Hell is known as “Dante’s Inferno,” and it is frightful.

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the vernacular) rather than ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in “The Divine Comedy,” in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died.  The account of Hell is known as “Dante’s Inferno,” and it is frightful.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was another poet of Florence, who is described by historians as a humanist.  In fact, he was a devout Christian who saw no conflict between religious faith and fully developing man’s potential.  He wrote in Latin rather than the Italian vernacular and, being a bit of character, wrote a few letters to Virgil and Cicero of Ancient Rome (who of course did not respond!).  Petrarch also wrote romantic poems about a woman named “Laura” based on merely seeing her once in church.  Later, humanists cited Petrarch works to try to find early support for humanism.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was another poet of Florence, who is described by historians as a humanist.  In fact, he was a devout Christian who saw no conflict between religious faith and fully developing man’s potential.  He wrote in Latin rather than the Italian vernacular and, being a bit of character, wrote a few letters to Virgil and Cicero of Ancient Rome (who of course did not respond!).  Petrarch also wrote romantic poems about a woman named “Laura” based on merely seeing her once in church.  Later, humanists cited Petrarch works to try to find early support for humanism.

'''D. The Philosophy of the Renaissance'''

===The Philosophy of the Renaissance===

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

It is true that materialism crept into the church when the extravagant Medici Pope Leo X spent more money than several previous popes combined.  The selling of indulgences to fund church building projects, explained further below, spawned the Protestant Reformation.  But materialism in building magnificent churches or funding artists like Michelangelo is not the same as the philosophy of humanism, and the claim that humanism was part of the Renaissance is anti-Christian historical revisionism (an alteration of history for improper purposes).

It is true that materialism crept into the church when the extravagant Medici Pope Leo X spent more money than several previous popes combined.  The selling of indulgences to fund church building projects, explained further below, spawned the Protestant Reformation.  But materialism in building magnificent churches or funding artists like Michelangelo is not the same as the philosophy of humanism, and the claim that humanism was part of the Renaissance is anti-Christian historical revisionism (an alteration of history for improper purposes).

'''E. The Northern Renaissance'''

===The Northern Renaissance===

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

Francois Rabelais (early 1500s) was a leading French thinker and writer.

Francois Rabelais (early 1500s) was a leading French thinker and writer.

'''III. Reformation'''

==Reformation==

Schisms in Christianity had occurred in the Middle Ages, most notably between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.  But throughout the Middle Ages the Holy Roman Empire maintained one Christian church in western and northern Europe, based in Rome, under the leadership and authority of one pope.

Schisms in Christianity had occurred in the Middle Ages, most notably between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.  But throughout the Middle Ages the Holy Roman Empire maintained one Christian church in western and northern Europe, based in Rome, under the leadership and authority of one pope.

It seems doubtful that the King of England and powerful German princes would accept the authority of any religious leader in Rome forever.  Kings and princes do not usually like being told what to do, and a big disagreement is usually resolved in favor of the person with the biggest army.  Even what appears to be a little disagreement, such as a dispute over the use of icons, can provide the spark for a separation that was already festering for decades or centuries.  In addition, accusations of corruption within the Catholic Church and charges that high-ranking clergy participated in serious crimes and immoral conduct provided reasons to leave.

It seems doubtful that the King of England and powerful German princes would accept the authority of any religious leader in Rome forever.  Kings and princes do not usually like being told what to do, and a big disagreement is usually resolved in favor of the person with the biggest army.  Even what appears to be a little disagreement, such as a dispute over the use of icons, can provide the spark for a separation that was already festering for decades or centuries.  In addition, accusations of corruption within the Catholic Church and charges that high-ranking clergy participated in serious crimes and immoral conduct provided reasons to leave.

'''A. The First Western European Schism: in Germany'''

===The First Western European Schism: in Germany===

The disagreement that ignited the Reformation did not seem large at the time.  Pope Leo X was an ambitious and extravagant man from the prominent Italian Medici family, and he became pope at the vigorous young age of 37.  He wanted to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican in a lavish style that he thought was appropriate for such a special church.  To do so, he needed to raise a great deal of money.  He invited donations in the names of the deceased, usually a relative of the donor.

The disagreement that ignited the Reformation did not seem large at the time.  Pope Leo X was an ambitious and extravagant man from the prominent Italian Medici family, and he became pope at the vigorous young age of 37.  He wanted to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican in a lavish style that he thought was appropriate for such a special church.  To do so, he needed to raise a great deal of money.  He invited donations in the names of the deceased, usually a relative of the donor.

Lutheranism has only 70 million adherents today, which is only about 7% of the Catholic population.  But nearly all Christians, including Catholics, have sung a famous hymn written by Luther:  “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Christians worldwide agree with Luther that justification or salvation is by faith alone.

Lutheranism has only 70 million adherents today, which is only about 7% of the Catholic population.  But nearly all Christians, including Catholics, have sung a famous hymn written by Luther:  “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”  Moreover, hundreds of millions of Christians worldwide agree with Luther that justification or salvation is by faith alone.

'''B. The Second Western European Schism: in England'''

===The Second Western European Schism: in England===

As early as 1361 there were criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church from England.  John Wyclif (or Wycliffe) (1330-1384) was a lecturer at Oxford University, a leading world university founded in the late 1100s.  Wyclif was very critical of the perceived wealth and power of the Catholic Church and questioned the scriptural basis for the pope.  Wyclif declared the Bible as the sole guide for Christians, and Wyclif translated the Bible into English.  But Wyclif was forced out of Oxford when he rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation and when the Peasant’s Revolt in 1381 was blamed on Wyclif’s teachings.

As early as 1361 there were criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church from England.  John Wyclif (or Wycliffe) (1330-1384) was a lecturer at Oxford University, a leading world university founded in the late 1100s.  Wyclif was very critical of the perceived wealth and power of the Catholic Church and questioned the scriptural basis for the pope.  Wyclif declared the Bible as the sole guide for Christians, and Wyclif translated the Bible into English.  But Wyclif was forced out of Oxford when he rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation and when the Peasant’s Revolt in 1381 was blamed on Wyclif’s teachings.

There were subsequently “protestant” separations from the Church of England.  For example, the Pilgrims who left England on the Mayflower and landed in Plymouth, Massachusetts, sought to break away from the Church of England.  The larger and more successful Puritans who settled in Boston sought to “purify” the Church of England while remaining in it.

There were subsequently “protestant” separations from the Church of England.  For example, the Pilgrims who left England on the Mayflower and landed in Plymouth, Massachusetts, sought to break away from the Church of England.  The larger and more successful Puritans who settled in Boston sought to “purify” the Church of England while remaining in it.

'''C. Other Protestant Movements'''

===Other Protestant Movements===

There was a Reformation in Switzerland started by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and continued by John Calvin (1509-1564), who emphasized justification by faith alone and also predestination, whereby the decision about who goes to heaven and who to hell was made before the creation of the world.  Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland.

There was a Reformation in Switzerland started by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and continued by John Calvin (1509-1564), who emphasized justification by faith alone and also predestination, whereby the decision about who goes to heaven and who to hell was made before the creation of the world.  Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland.

A majority of the United States has always been Protestant, as has every single president except John F. Kennedy (who was Catholic).  Nearly every Founder of the United States was Protestant.

A majority of the United States has always been Protestant, as has every single president except John F. Kennedy (who was Catholic).  Nearly every Founder of the United States was Protestant.

'''D. Catholic Church’s Internal Reformation'''

===Catholic Church’s Internal Reformation===

In 1545, the Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent to address Protestantism, and the Council deliberated until 1563.  It banned the sale of any indulgences in the future.  The Council also affirmed the Church’s view that the Bible and Church were of equal authority, and the Church’s interpretation of the Bible was the final authority.  Both faith and good works were necessary for salvation under Church doctrine.  The Council also created an Index of Forbidden Books, which listed books that Catholics were not to read.  This Index remained in effect until 1966, when the Second Vatican Council abolished it.  In sum, the Catholic Church reaffirmed its basic doctrines in its response to the Reformation.

In 1545, the Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent to address Protestantism, and the Council deliberated until 1563.  It banned the sale of any indulgences in the future.  The Council also affirmed the Church’s view that the Bible and Church were of equal authority, and the Church’s interpretation of the Bible was the final authority.  Both faith and good works were necessary for salvation under Church doctrine.  The Council also created an Index of Forbidden Books, which listed books that Catholics were not to read.  This Index remained in effect until 1966, when the Second Vatican Council abolished it.  In sum, the Catholic Church reaffirmed its basic doctrines in its response to the Reformation.

After the Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was used with less violence to combat Protestantism.  It was disbanded in the 1800s.  Today Spain is virtually 100% Catholic in name only, and is one of the few countries that has legalized gay marriage.  Its economy is socialistic, a mere shell of the mighty empire that it was in the 1500s.

After the Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was used with less violence to combat Protestantism.  It was disbanded in the 1800s.  Today Spain is virtually 100% Catholic in name only, and is one of the few countries that has legalized gay marriage.  Its economy is socialistic, a mere shell of the mighty empire that it was in the 1500s.

'''E. Effects of the Reformation'''

===Effects of the Reformation===

The immediate effect of the Reformation was to strengthen the nation-state.  Rome was no longer the center of power, as England and Germany had their own churches now.  Education improved, as Catholics and Protestants tried to increase their numbers by building better schools.  Also, the translation of the Bible into local languages increased the used of vernacular and decreased reliance on old Latin.

The immediate effect of the Reformation was to strengthen the nation-state.  Rome was no longer the center of power, as England and Germany had their own churches now.  Education improved, as Catholics and Protestants tried to increase their numbers by building better schools.  Also, the translation of the Bible into local languages increased the used of vernacular and decreased reliance on old Latin.

The competition between Catholics and Protestants may have some benefits.  In modern times the Catholic Church was the original leader against abortion, with the Protestants eventually agreeing.  Protestant evangelicals have been the leaders against teaching evolution (e.g, the American William Jennings Bryan in the 1920s).  In the papal encyclical “Humani Generis” (1950), the Catholic Church prohibited teaching evolution contrary to the biblical Adam, but Catholic schools routinely teach evolution anyway.  However, recent signs suggest a Catholic shift against evolution.  Most Christians oppose same-sex marriage and agree on most social issues.  Protestants are on average wealthier than Catholics and tend to support free enterprise more, and evangelical Protestants are often more vocal on social issues.  Catholics generally prohibit divorce, while Protestants allow it.  American Protestants tend to oppose immigration more than Catholics do, while Catholics tend to oppose the death penalty more than Protestants do.  Perhaps the competition makes everyone try harder.

The competition between Catholics and Protestants may have some benefits.  In modern times the Catholic Church was the original leader against abortion, with the Protestants eventually agreeing.  Protestant evangelicals have been the leaders against teaching evolution (e.g, the American William Jennings Bryan in the 1920s).  In the papal encyclical “Humani Generis” (1950), the Catholic Church prohibited teaching evolution contrary to the biblical Adam, but Catholic schools routinely teach evolution anyway.  However, recent signs suggest a Catholic shift against evolution.  Most Christians oppose same-sex marriage and agree on most social issues.  Protestants are on average wealthier than Catholics and tend to support free enterprise more, and evangelical Protestants are often more vocal on social issues.  Catholics generally prohibit divorce, while Protestants allow it.  American Protestants tend to oppose immigration more than Catholics do, while Catholics tend to oppose the death penalty more than Protestants do.  Perhaps the competition makes everyone try harder.

'''IV.  Asia in the Middle Ages'''

==Asia in the Middle Ages==

The massive continent of Asia is divided into “South Asia,” which is India, “East Asia,” which is China, Japan and Korea, and “Southeast Asia,” which is Vietnam and Cambodia, and “Southwest Asia” which is the Middle East.  In this section we deal with East and Southeast Asia, discussing in particular what happened in China in the Middle Ages (other than the Mongols, who we discussed in the prior lecture).

The massive continent of Asia is divided into “South Asia,” which is India, “East Asia,” which is China, Japan and Korea, and “Southeast Asia,” which is Vietnam and Cambodia, and “Southwest Asia” which is the Middle East.  In this section we deal with East and Southeast Asia, discussing in particular what happened in China in the Middle Ages (other than the Mongols, who we discussed in the prior lecture).

Recall that in the ancient world China first had the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 B.C.) north of the Yangtze River.  Next China had its first imperial or national Chinese dynasty:  the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty began to construct the Great Wall to defend against foreign invaders, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  The Han empire or dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D 220, with only a brief interruption from A.D. 6-23) built on the foundation of the Qin dynasty, extending the walls and roads.  The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Southeastern Asia regions of Vietnam and Korea, and administered the country from a centralized and organized civil service.  This Han dynasty was comparable to the Roman empire, and lasted the longest of any dynasty in China.  Its state philosophy was Confucianism.  But the Han dynasty fell just like as the Roman empire did.  Afterwards, China was ruled by regional governments known as the Three Kingdoms (A.D. 220-280).  In A.D. 589, the Sui dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government.  Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China.

Recall that in the ancient world China first had the Zhou dynasty (1122-221 B.C.) north of the Yangtze River.  Next China had its first imperial or national Chinese dynasty:  the Qin or Ch’in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), which was founded by the ruler of the Zhou vassal state Qin, Prince Zheng.  The Qin dynasty began to construct the Great Wall to defend against foreign invaders, which stretches today for 1,400 miles.  The Han empire or dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D 220, with only a brief interruption from A.D. 6-23) built on the foundation of the Qin dynasty, extending the walls and roads.  The Han dynasty expanded the territory of China into Southeastern Asia regions of Vietnam and Korea, and administered the country from a centralized and organized civil service.  This Han dynasty was comparable to the Roman empire, and lasted the longest of any dynasty in China.  Its state philosophy was Confucianism.  But the Han dynasty fell just like as the Roman empire did.  Afterwards, China was ruled by regional governments known as the Three Kingdoms (A.D. 220-280).  In A.D. 589, the Sui dynasty arose to reestablish centralized government.  Subsequently the longer Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China.

'''A.  Sui Dynasty'''

===Sui Dynasty===

The Sui dynasty established central rule in China in A.D. 589 for the first time since the Han dynasty in A.D. 220.  But the Sui dynasty ruled for only a very brief period of 29 years, until A.D. 618.  However, it accomplished something magnificent:  it built the Grand Canal to connect northern and southern China.  This tremendous engineering achievement consisted of a canal nearly 1240 miles long, with a road running alongside it on each side.  It enabled the transportation of agricultural products such as rice from the fertile Yangtze River valley to northern China.  Other construction also occurred, such as repairing walls that defend China.  (The current “Great Wall of China” was based on walls built as early as 210 B.C., but its present form was not completed until the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1544)).  The Sui dynasty ended in a revolution against high taxes in northern China and the assassination in 618 of the emperor Sui Yangdi.

The Sui dynasty established central rule in China in A.D. 589 for the first time since the Han dynasty in A.D. 220.  But the Sui dynasty ruled for only a very brief period of 29 years, until A.D. 618.  However, it accomplished something magnificent:  it built the Grand Canal to connect northern and southern China.  This tremendous engineering achievement consisted of a canal nearly 1240 miles long, with a road running alongside it on each side.  It enabled the transportation of agricultural products such as rice from the fertile Yangtze River valley to northern China.  Other construction also occurred, such as repairing walls that defend China.  (The current “Great Wall of China” was based on walls built as early as 210 B.C., but its present form was not completed until the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1544)).  The Sui dynasty ended in a revolution against high taxes in northern China and the assassination in 618 of the emperor Sui Yangdi.

'''B.  Tang Dynasty'''

===Tang Dynasty===

The Tang dynasty ruled for nearly 300 years, from A.D. 618 to 907.  This is known as the golden age of art and poetry in China.  New territories were acquired, including Manchuria, Tibet, Korea and northern Vietnam.  This territory became known as the “Middle Kingdom,” whereby it drew wealth from surrounding states through a ritualistic “kowtow”, such that diplomats from surrounding states were expected to pay homage to the emperor by touching their forehead repeatedly to the ground beneath the emperor.  The Tang dynasty accumulated vast wealth for China during this period.

The Tang dynasty ruled for nearly 300 years, from A.D. 618 to 907.  This is known as the golden age of art and poetry in China.  New territories were acquired, including Manchuria, Tibet, Korea and northern Vietnam.  This territory became known as the “Middle Kingdom,” whereby it drew wealth from surrounding states through a ritualistic “kowtow”, such that diplomats from surrounding states were expected to pay homage to the emperor by touching their forehead repeatedly to the ground beneath the emperor.  The Tang dynasty accumulated vast wealth for China during this period.

Ultimately the peasants rebelled over the misuse of funds by the government.  In A.D. 907 the last Tang emperor gave up.  Regional rule by warlords then prevailed over China.

Ultimately the peasants rebelled over the misuse of funds by the government.  In A.D. 907 the last Tang emperor gave up.  Regional rule by warlords then prevailed over China.

'''C.  Song Dynasty'''

===Song Dynasty===

About 50 years after the fall of the Tang dynasty, the Song dynasty united China again under centralized rule.  This dynasty governed for about 300 years, from A.D. 960 to 1279.  It emphasized education even more than the Tang dynasty did.  Art and literature thrived.  Paper money was invented during the Song dynasty.

About 50 years after the fall of the Tang dynasty, the Song dynasty united China again under centralized rule.  This dynasty governed for about 300 years, from A.D. 960 to 1279.  It emphasized education even more than the Tang dynasty did.  Art and literature thrived.  Paper money was invented during the Song dynasty.

The Song dynasty ultimately collapsed from too much bureaucracy and its weak military.  It was unable to fight off invading tribes like the Khitan and the Jurchen, which invaded north China and forced the Song dynasty to the south.  The Mongols then took over southern China in 1279, causing the complete end of the Song dynasty.

The Song dynasty ultimately collapsed from too much bureaucracy and its weak military.  It was unable to fight off invading tribes like the Khitan and the Jurchen, which invaded north China and forced the Song dynasty to the south.  The Mongols then took over southern China in 1279, causing the complete end of the Song dynasty.

'''D.  Culture, Trade and Religion under the Tang and Song Dynasties'''

===Culture, Trade and Religion under the Tang and Song Dynasties===

Buddhism spread in China in initial form of Mahayana Buddhism, which treated Buddha like a god.  The Chinese version of Buddhism was different from the Indian form and was called “Chan Buddhism”; the Japanese version was named “Zen Buddhism.”  Chan and Zen Buddhism focused more on enlightenment and meditation than Indian Buddhism.  The Chinese dynasties then introduced Buddhism to Vietnam.  Meanwhile, Confucianism changed to “neo-Confucianism” to adapt to these Buddhist changes.

Buddhism spread in China in initial form of Mahayana Buddhism, which treated Buddha like a god.  The Chinese version of Buddhism was different from the Indian form and was called “Chan Buddhism”; the Japanese version was named “Zen Buddhism.”  Chan and Zen Buddhism focused more on enlightenment and meditation than Indian Buddhism.  The Chinese dynasties then introduced Buddhism to Vietnam.  Meanwhile, Confucianism changed to “neo-Confucianism” to adapt to these Buddhist changes.

The adjacent countries of Japan, Korea and Vietnam all adopted modifications of the Chinese writing system, religion and type of government.  Each of these regions, as well as present-day Cambodia, had empires of its own.   

The adjacent countries of Japan, Korea and Vietnam all adopted modifications of the Chinese writing system, religion and type of government.  Each of these regions, as well as present-day Cambodia, had empires of its own.   

'''E.  Vietnam'''

===Vietnam===

Vietnam, which has a large population of 84 million today, won its independence in A.D. 939, soon after the fall of the Tang dynasty.  Historians describe the treatment of women in Vietnam as having been better than in China.  The Lu dynasty of Vietnam ruled from 1009 to 1225 and established a capital at Hanoi, which remains the capital to this day.  The Vietnamese have always been fierce fighters.  They defeated three attempts by the mighty Mongols to conquer Hanoi in the late 1200s.

Vietnam, which has a large population of 84 million today, won its independence in A.D. 939, soon after the fall of the Tang dynasty.  Historians describe the treatment of women in Vietnam as having been better than in China.  The Lu dynasty of Vietnam ruled from 1009 to 1225 and established a capital at Hanoi, which remains the capital to this day.  The Vietnamese have always been fierce fighters.  They defeated three attempts by the mighty Mongols to conquer Hanoi in the late 1200s.

'''F.  Korea'''

===Korea===

The Silla dynasty in Korea formed an alliance with the Chinese Tang dynasty and then unified the three kingdoms of the Korean peninsula for the first time in A.D. 668.  The Silla dynasty expelled the Tang a decade later, establishing self-rule for the Koreans that continues today.  Korea was thus one of the first nation-states to emerge in the entire world, and it assumed many of the linguistic and cultural features that it has to this day.

The Silla dynasty in Korea formed an alliance with the Chinese Tang dynasty and then unified the three kingdoms of the Korean peninsula for the first time in A.D. 668.  The Silla dynasty expelled the Tang a decade later, establishing self-rule for the Koreans that continues today.  Korea was thus one of the first nation-states to emerge in the entire world, and it assumed many of the linguistic and cultural features that it has to this day.

In 935 a Koryo dynasty emerged after it overthrew the Silla dynasty.  “Korea” today takes its name from the “Koryo dynasty.”  Scholars and soldiers took control of Korea in 1392, after the Mongols invaded Korea from 1231 to 1350, and the scholars established the Choson or Yi dynasty.

In 935 a Koryo dynasty emerged after it overthrew the Silla dynasty.  “Korea” today takes its name from the “Koryo dynasty.”  Scholars and soldiers took control of Korea in 1392, after the Mongols invaded Korea from 1231 to 1350, and the scholars established the Choson or Yi dynasty.

'''G.  Khmer Empire'''

===Khmer Empire===

This empire peaked in A.D. 1200 in modern Cambodia, thriving on rice production and trade with China and India.  The Khmer empire built the Angkor Wat, a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu with mixed Southeast Asian and Indian art.

This empire peaked in A.D. 1200 in modern Cambodia, thriving on rice production and trade with China and India.  The Khmer empire built the Angkor Wat, a temple dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu with mixed Southeast Asian and Indian art.

The Siamese, the residents of the modern Thailand (called “Siam” until 1939), destroyed the Khmer empire with conquests up until the 14th century.  But “Khmer Republic” came back as the official name for Cambodia in 1970-75, and the “Khmer Rouge” was a Cambodian communist movement that savagely killed about 2 million Cambodians in the 1970s and destroyed much of the nation after the United States left nearby Vietnam.  Later Vietnam communists invaded and overthrew the Cambodian communists.

The Siamese, the residents of the modern Thailand (called “Siam” until 1939), destroyed the Khmer empire with conquests up until the 14th century.  But “Khmer Republic” came back as the official name for Cambodia in 1970-75, and the “Khmer Rouge” was a Cambodian communist movement that savagely killed about 2 million Cambodians in the 1970s and destroyed much of the nation after the United States left nearby Vietnam.  Later Vietnam communists invaded and overthrew the Cambodian communists.