Changes

{{QuoteBox|This is good evidence that natural selection plays a part in maintaining a higher frequency of this carrier state. If you are resistant to malaria, you are more likely to survive to pass on your genes. Nevertheless, it is a defect, not an increase in complexity or an improvement in function which is being selected for, and having more carriers in the population means that there will be more people suffering from this terrible [[disease]].<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/901/ Sickle-cell anemia does not prove evolution!], ''Creation'' 16(2):40–41, March 1994.</ref>}}

{{QuoteBox|This is good evidence that natural selection plays a part in maintaining a higher frequency of this carrier state. If you are resistant to malaria, you are more likely to survive to pass on your genes. Nevertheless, it is a defect, not an increase in complexity or an improvement in function which is being selected for, and having more carriers in the population means that there will be more people suffering from this terrible [[disease]].<ref>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/901/ Sickle-cell anemia does not prove evolution!], ''Creation'' 16(2):40–41, March 1994.</ref>}}

'''HIV-1 M subtype D's Na+ viroporin''', is known as an example of a Gain-of-Function mutation due to the viroporin being gated and specific to Na+ cations.  A viroporin is an ion channel that allows for the movement of ions from one side of a membrane to another.  A gated channel has an additional feature which closes the channel to prevent "leaking" of ions across the membrane.  In this example the HIV types before HIV-1 M did not have this viroporin.  To go from an ordinary viroporin's original form to the multisubunit structure with a new function required the development of a new binding site, which involves more than a single amino acid substitution<ref>Paul et al. (1998) Mutational Analysis of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpu Transmembrane Domain That Promotes the Enhanced Release of Virus-Like Particles from the Plasma Membrane of Mammalian Cells. J Virol, 72 (2): 1270.</ref>. Not just any binding site will do, for a mass of agglomerated protein would occur, not an ion channel with ion selectivity. As such, HIV-1 M's viroporin is a gated ion channel, not just a hole punched in the membrane, with a specific amino acid responsible for the gating<ref>Mehnert T, et al., Biophysical characterization of Vpu from HIV-1 suggests a channel-pore dualism. Proteins. 2007 Oct 1; doi: 10.1002/prot.21642.</ref>. What is important is that this mutation is beneficial to the virus; it increases viral particle release, spreading HIV more efficiently<ref>Paul et al. (1998) Mutational Analysis of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpu Transmembrane Domain That Promotes the Enhanced Release of Virus-Like Particles from the Plasma Membrane of Mammalian Cells. J Virol, 72 (2): 1270.</ref>.

'''HIV-1 M subtype D's Na+ viroporin''', is known as an example of a Gain-of-Function mutation due to the viroporin being gated and specific to Na+ cations.  A viroporin is an ion channel that allows for the movement of ions from one side of a membrane to another.  A gated channel has an additional feature which closes the channel to prevent "leaking" of ions across the membrane.  In this example the HIV types before HIV-1 M did not have this viroporin.  To go from an ordinary viroporin's original form to the multisubunit structure with a new function required the development of a new binding site, which involves more than a single amino acid substitution.<ref name="Paul 1998">Paul et al. (1998) Mutational Analysis of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpu Transmembrane Domain That Promotes the Enhanced Release of Virus-Like Particles from the Plasma Membrane of Mammalian Cells. J Virol, 72 (2): 1270.</ref> Not just any binding site will do, for a mass of agglomerated protein would occur, not an ion channel with ion selectivity. As such, HIV-1 M's viroporin is a gated ion channel, not just a hole punched in the membrane, with a specific amino acid responsible for the gating.<ref>Mehnert T, et al., Biophysical characterization of Vpu from HIV-1 suggests a channel-pore dualism. Proteins. 2007 Oct 1; doi: 10.1002/prot.21642.</ref> What is important is that this mutation is beneficial to the virus; it increases viral particle release, spreading HIV more efficiently.<ref name="Paul 1998"/>

===Neutral===

===Neutral===

==Mutations and the Theory of Evolution==

==Mutations and the Theory of Evolution==

Most evolutionists believe that the processes of mutation, [[genetic drift]] and [[natural selection]] created every species of life that we see on earth today after [[Origin of life|life first came about on earth]]<ref name="Dawk">[[Jonathan Sarfati]], P.H.D., F.M., [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1855 Climbing Mount Improbable: A Review of Climbing Mount Improbable by Richard Dawkins]</ref>, and of these, mutations are the only one supposedly capable of supplying new genetic information.

Most evolutionists believe that the processes of mutation, [[genetic drift]] and [[natural selection]] created every species of life that we see on earth today after [[Origin of life|life first came about on earth]],<ref name="Dawk">[[Jonathan Sarfati]], P.H.D., F.M., [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/1855 Climbing Mount Improbable: A Review of Climbing Mount Improbable by Richard Dawkins]</ref> and of these, mutations are the only one supposedly capable of supplying new genetic information.

Evolutionist [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] wrote: "The process of mutation is the only known source of the new materials of genetic variability, and hence of [[Theory of evolution|evolution]]."<ref>[[NorthWest Creation Network]], [http://www.nwcreation.net/geneticquotes.html Quotes on Genetics]</ref>

Evolutionist [[Theodosius Dobzhansky]] wrote: "The process of mutation is the only known source of the new materials of genetic variability, and hence of [[Theory of evolution|evolution]]."<ref>[[NorthWest Creation Network]], [http://www.nwcreation.net/geneticquotes.html Quotes on Genetics]</ref>

[[Image:Pierre Grasse.jpg|thumb|140px|right|Pierre Grasse]]

[[Image:Pierre Grasse.jpg|thumb|140px|right|Pierre Grasse]]

Mutations that allegedly create new genetic [[information]] have been described. Mutations are claimed to have led to the evolution of new genes<ref>[[Okada]] 1983</ref>, to the novel use of existing genetic information<ref> [[Sean Carroll]] 2005</ref>, and to the construction of new genes by shuffling and recombining of parts of existing genes<ref> [[Godzik A.]] 2008</ref>, although the claims are disputed<ref>Batten, Don, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1586/ The adaptation of bacteria to feeding on nylon waste], ''Journal of Creation'' 17(3):3–5, December 2003.</ref> or are based on speculation rather than observation of the mutations actually occurring. But these examples don't challenge [[creation]] at all, since the [[information]] already existed in the past. Mutations that have created new genetic ''information'' (different from genetic ''material'') have never been observed.

Mutations that allegedly create new genetic [[information]] have been described. Mutations are claimed to have led to the evolution of new genes,<ref>[[Okada]] 1983</ref> to the novel use of existing genetic information,<ref>[[Sean Carroll]] 2005</ref> and to the construction of new genes by shuffling and recombining of parts of existing genes,<ref>[[Godzik A.]] 2008</ref> although the claims are disputed<ref>Batten, Don, [http://creationontheweb.com/content/view/1586/ The adaptation of bacteria to feeding on nylon waste], ''Journal of Creation'' 17(3):3–5, December 2003.</ref> or are based on speculation rather than observation of the mutations actually occurring. But these examples don't challenge [[creation]] at all, since the [[information]] already existed in the past. Mutations that have created new genetic ''information'' (different from genetic ''material'') have never been observed.

[[Pierre Grasse]], who served as Chair of Evolution at [[Sorbonne University]] for thirty years and was ex-president of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], said:{{QuoteBox|Some contemporary biologists, as soon as they observe a mutation, talk about evolution. They are implicitly supporting the following syllogism: mutations are the only evolutionary variations, all living beings undergo mutations, therefore all living beings evolve....No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution.<ref name="Grasse">Quoted on [http://www.veritas-ucsb.org/library/origins/quotes/mutations.html Veritas Forum]</ref>}}

[[Pierre Grasse]], who served as Chair of Evolution at [[Sorbonne University]] for thirty years and was ex-president of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], said:{{QuoteBox|Some contemporary biologists, as soon as they observe a mutation, talk about evolution. They are implicitly supporting the following syllogism: mutations are the only evolutionary variations, all living beings undergo mutations, therefore all living beings evolve....No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution.<ref name="Grasse">Quoted on [http://www.veritas-ucsb.org/library/origins/quotes/mutations.html Veritas Forum]</ref>}}

Grasse went on to point out that bacteria, much studied by geneticists and molecular biologists, produce the most mutants,<ref>[http://www.veritas-ucsb.org/library/origins/quotes/mutations.html Veritas Forum]</ref>, yet bacteria are considered to have "stabilized a billion years ago!".<ref name="Grasse" />

Grasse went on to point out that bacteria, much studied by geneticists and molecular biologists, produce the most mutants,<ref>[http://www.veritas-ucsb.org/library/origins/quotes/mutations.html Veritas Forum]</ref> yet bacteria are considered to have "stabilized a billion years ago!".<ref name="Grasse" />

Grasse regards the "unceasing mutations" to be "merely hereditary fluctuations around a median position; a swing to the right, a swing to the left, but no final evolutionary effect."<ref name="Grasse" />

Grasse regards the "unceasing mutations" to be "merely hereditary fluctuations around a median position; a swing to the right, a swing to the left, but no final evolutionary effect."<ref name="Grasse" />

Although he believed that random mutations produced new features, [[Harvard]] biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] admitted the difficulty with the idea: "It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations."<ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes9.html Ernst Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species (New York: Dover Publications, 1942), p. 296]</ref>  

Although he believed that random mutations produced new features, [[Harvard]] biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] admitted the difficulty with the idea: "It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one’s credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird’s feather) could be improved by random mutations."<ref>[http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes9.html Ernst Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species (New York: Dover Publications, 1942), p. 296]</ref>  

[[Creationism|Creation scientists]] argue that mutations ''cannot'' generate new genetic information.<ref>[[Answers in Genesis]], [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/mutations.asp Mutations: Questions and Answers]</ref><ref>Dr. [[Jerry Bergman]], [http://www.trueorigin.org/mutations01.asp Darwinism and the Deterioration of the Genome]</ref><ref name="Dawk" /><ref>[[Jonathan Sarfati]], P.H.D., F.M.,  [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3831 ''Refuting Evolution'', Chapter 2, Variation and Natural Selection Versus Evolution]</ref><ref>[[Answers in Genesis]], [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/selection.asp Natural Selection Questions and Answers]</ref>.

[[Creationism|Creation scientists]] argue that mutations ''cannot'' generate new genetic information.<ref name="Dawk" /><ref>[[Answers in Genesis]], [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/mutations.asp Mutations: Questions and Answers]</ref><ref>Dr. [[Jerry Bergman]], [http://www.trueorigin.org/mutations01.asp Darwinism and the Deterioration of the Genome]</ref><ref>[[Jonathan Sarfati]], P.H.D., F.M.,  [http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/3831 ''Refuting Evolution'', Chapter 2, Variation and Natural Selection Versus Evolution]</ref><ref>[[Answers in Genesis]], [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/selection.asp Natural Selection Questions and Answers]</ref>

==References==

==References==