Changes

In 1801, President [[Thomas Jefferson]], alarmed that Federalists dominated the civil service and the army, identified the [[party affiliation]] of office holders, and systematically appointed republicans. [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1829 began the systematic rotation of office holders after four years, replacing them with his partisans in a controversial move. By the 1830s the "spoils system" meant the systematic replacement of office holders every time the government changed party hands.

In 1801, President [[Thomas Jefferson]], alarmed that Federalists dominated the civil service and the army, identified the [[party affiliation]] of office holders, and systematically appointed republicans. [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1829 began the systematic rotation of office holders after four years, replacing them with his partisans in a controversial move. By the 1830s the "spoils system" meant the systematic replacement of office holders every time the government changed party hands.

The Civil Service Reform Act is an 1883 federal law that established the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It eventually placed most federal employees on the merit system and marked the end of the so-called "[[spoils system]]." Drafted during the [[Chester A. Arthur]] administration, the Pendleton Act served as a response to President [[James Garfield]]'s assassination by a disappointed office seeker.  The Act was passed into law in January 1883; it was sponsored by Democratic Senator George H. Pendleton of Ohio. It was drafted by Dorman Bridgeman Eaton, a leading reformer who became the first chairman of the United States Civil Service Commission.  The most famous commissioner was [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1889-95).  The new law prohibited mandatory campaign contributions, or "assessments," which amounted to 50-75% of party financing in the Gilded Age. Second, the Pendleton Act required entrance exams for wannabe bureaucrats.  At first it covered very few jobs but there was a ratchet provision whereby outgoing presidents could lock in their own appointees by converting their jobs to civil service.  Political reformers, typified by the [[Mugwumps]] demanded an end to the spoils system. After a series of party reversals at the presidential level (1884, 1888, 1892, 1896), the result was that most federal jobs were under civil service. One result was more expertise and less politics. An unintended result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding from business, since they could no longer depend on patronage hopefuls. [[Mark Hanna]] found a substitute revenue stream in 1896, by assessing corporations.  

The Civil Service Reform Act is an 1883 federal law that established the [[Civil Service Commission]]. It eventually placed most federal employees on the merit system and marked the end of the so-called "[[spoils system]]." Drafted during the [[Chester A. Arthur]] administration, the Pendleton Act served as a response to President [[James Garfield]]'s assassination by a disappointed office seeker.  The Act was passed into law in January 1883; it was sponsored by Democratic Senator George H. Pendleton of Ohio. It was drafted by Dorman Bridgeman Eaton, a leading reformer who became the first chairman of the United States Civil Service Commission.  The most famous commissioner was [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1889–95).  The new law prohibited mandatory campaign contributions, or "assessments," which amounted to 50-75% of party financing in the Gilded Age. Second, the Pendleton Act required entrance exams for wannabe bureaucrats.  At first it covered very few jobs but there was a ratchet provision whereby outgoing presidents could lock in their own appointees by converting their jobs to civil service.  Political reformers, typified by the [[Mugwumps]] demanded an end to the spoils system. After a series of party reversals at the presidential level (1884, 1888, 1892, 1896), the result was that most federal jobs were under civil service. One result was more expertise and less politics. An unintended result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding from business, since they could no longer depend on patronage hopefuls. [[Mark Hanna]] found a substitute revenue stream in 1896, by assessing corporations.  

The 1883 law only applied to federal jobs: not to the state and local jobs that were the main basis for political machines.  Ethical degeneration was halted by reform in civil service and municipal reform in the [[Progressive Era]], which led to structural changes in administrative departments and changes in the way the government managed public affairs. The 1978 Ethics in Government Act codified standards of government ethics for the executive branch. In 1989, the act was expanded in its applicability to the legislative and judicial branches. Throughout the American ethics reform movement, one of the most important themes has been the prevention of conflicts of interest.

The 1883 law only applied to federal jobs: not to the state and local jobs that were the main basis for political machines.  Ethical degeneration was halted by reform in civil service and municipal reform in the [[Progressive Era]], which led to structural changes in administrative departments and changes in the way the government managed public affairs. The 1978 Ethics in Government Act codified standards of government ethics for the executive branch. In 1989, the act was expanded in its applicability to the legislative and judicial branches. Throughout the American ethics reform movement, one of the most important themes has been the prevention of conflicts of interest.

* Skowronek, Stephen. ''Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacity, 1877-1920'' (1982).  

* Skowronek, Stephen. ''Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacity, 1877-1920'' (1982).  

* Van Riper, Paul P. ''History of the United States Civil Service'' (1958).

* Van Riper, Paul P. ''History of the United States Civil Service'' (1958).

*Weber J., "Leonard Dupee White and Public Administration", ''Journal of Management History'', Volume 2, Number 2, February 1996, pp. 41-64

*Weber J., "Leonard Dupee White and Public Administration", ''Journal of Management History'', Volume 2, Number 2, February 1996, pp. 41–64

* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists: a Study in Administrative History'', 1956.

* White, Leonard D. ''The Federalists: a Study in Administrative History'', 1956.

* White, Leonard D. ''The Jeffersonians: a Study in Administrative History'' (1952)

* White, Leonard D. ''The Jeffersonians: a Study in Administrative History'' (1952)