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Bed bugs are approximately a fifth to a quarter of an inch (4-5 millimeters) long.  They are broad and flat in shape, brown in color, and glisten from a distinctive, smelly oil secreted from scent glands.  The wings are scale-like and vestigial.  Females lay about 200 or more eggs during reproductive periods, and can lay around a thousand during several such periods within a year.

Bed bugs are approximately a fifth to a quarter of an inch (4-5 millimeters) long.  They are broad and flat in shape, brown in color, and glisten from a distinctive, smelly oil secreted from scent glands.  The wings are scale-like and vestigial.  Females lay about 200 or more eggs during reproductive periods, and can lay around a thousand during several such periods within a year.

Bed bugs feed chiefly at night;<ref>"Bed bugs hide during the day and typically feed at night." [http://npic.orst.edu/pest/bedbug.html National Pesticide Information Center -  Bed Bugs]</ref> in the wild they feed on the blood of birds and small mammals, and within human-inhabited areas they feed upon domesticated animals as well as man.  They retreat to their hiding places during the daytime, using up to several days in which to digest their food.<ref>http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/bedbugs/</ref> Most bed bugs live full time within eight feet of where humans sleep. When hiding they are generally found in bedding and mattresses (hence the name), nearby furniture, carpeting, within dressers and clothes, curtains, and cushions.

Bed bugs feed chiefly at night;<ref>"Bed bugs hide during the day and typically feed at night." [http://npic.orst.edu/pest/bedbug.html National Pesticide Information Center -  Bed Bugs]</ref> in the wild they feed on the blood of birds and small mammals, and within human-inhabited areas they feed upon domesticated animals as well as man.  They retreat to their hiding places during the daytime, using up to several days in which to digest their food.<ref>http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/bedbugs/</ref> Most bed bugs live full-time within eight feet of where humans sleep. When hiding they are generally found in bedding and mattresses (hence the name), nearby furniture, carpeting, within dressers and clothes, curtains, and cushions.

==History==

==History==

Bed bugs spread throughout Europe and Asia, reaching Italy by 100 A.D., China by 600 A.D., and Germany and France in the 1200s and 1400s, and are mentioned in medieval European texts and in classical Greek writings back to the time of Aristotle. The earliest record of bed bugs in England is that of 1583. Migrating with European explorers to America, infestations first arose in busy seaport towns, and  later on appearing farther inland. This pattern that was repeated in the late 1990s, with the reports of infestations first coming from such gateway cities as [[New York]], [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]] and [[Miami]].<ref>http://www.pctonline.com/Article.aspx?article_id=37608</ref> A 1920s guide advises treating infested mattresses with "high-test gasoline" and a 1935 guide prescribed powdered calcium cyanide.   

Bed bugs spread throughout Europe and Asia, reaching Italy by 100 A.D., China by 600 A.D., and Germany and France in the 1200s and 1400s, and are mentioned in medieval European texts and in classical Greek writings back to the time of Aristotle. The earliest record of bed bugs in England is that of 1583. Migrating with European explorers to America, infestations first arose in busy seaport towns, and  later on appearing farther inland. This pattern that was repeated in the late 1990s, with the reports of infestations first coming from such gateway cities as [[New York]], [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]] and [[Miami]].<ref>http://www.pctonline.com/Article.aspx?article_id=37608</ref> A 1920s guide advises treating infested mattresses with "high-test gasoline" and a 1935 guide prescribed powdered calcium cyanide.   

In the 1800's, bed bugs were significant pest in parts of both the United States and the United Kingdom.  Government Entomologist  Dr. Riley, PhD, described the ubiquity of bed bugs in 1889:

In the 1800s, bed bugs were significant pest in parts of both the United States and the United Kingdom.  Government Entomologist  Dr. Riley, PhD, described the ubiquity of bed bugs in 1889:

{{cquote|I have occasionally met with a favored individual who had never seen a bed bug; but such fortunate people are rare and there are very few housekeepers who have not, by accident perhaps, or through slovenly servants, made the intimate acquaintance of the ubiquitous pest…. It’s odor and the effects of its bites are universally known, and the word “bed buggy” has entered our literature as descriptive of a particular class of odors.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=j1Y7AAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA25&ots=b_vavYWYXE&dq=Entomologist%20%20Dr.%20Riley%2C%20PhD%20bed%20bugs&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false Good Housekeeping Journal], May 25. 1889, p. 25</ref>}}

{{cquote|I have occasionally met with a favored individual who had never seen a bed bug; but such fortunate people are rare and there are very few housekeepers who have not, by accident perhaps, or through slovenly servants, made the intimate acquaintance of the ubiquitous pest…. It’s odor and the effects of its bites are universally known, and the word “bed buggy” has entered our literature as descriptive of a particular class of odors.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=j1Y7AAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA25&ots=b_vavYWYXE&dq=Entomologist%20%20Dr.%20Riley%2C%20PhD%20bed%20bugs&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false Good Housekeeping Journal], May 25. 1889, p. 25</ref>}}

mainly found in homeless shelters, and prisons, while during in the period 1967-73, about 61% of infestations were found in domestic residential property, while about 25% were in institutional settings.<ref>[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=15&ved=0CI8BEBYwDg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icup.org.uk%2Freports%255CICUP911.pdf&ei=_7fkTMOcM4X7lwfpgvC1Cw&usg=AFQjCNHAv-kTckL-i94tT9QVwttxl-L2YQ&sig2=nWe_LzSDoRelL73t_I6ljg  ''Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): An evidence-based analysis of the current situation,'' Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests], p. 9, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf ''Bed Bugs bounce back'', IPM Practitioner], March/April 2007</ref><ref>http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201006/2054573271.html</ref>  

mainly found in homeless shelters, and prisons, while during in the period 1967-73, about 61% of infestations were found in domestic residential property, while about 25% were in institutional settings.<ref>[http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=15&ved=0CI8BEBYwDg&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icup.org.uk%2Freports%255CICUP911.pdf&ei=_7fkTMOcM4X7lwfpgvC1Cw&usg=AFQjCNHAv-kTckL-i94tT9QVwttxl-L2YQ&sig2=nWe_LzSDoRelL73t_I6ljg  ''Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): An evidence-based analysis of the current situation,'' Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests], p. 9, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf ''Bed Bugs bounce back'', IPM Practitioner], March/April 2007</ref><ref>http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201006/2054573271.html</ref>  

A current resurgence of bed bug infestations appears to have started almost synchronously in the late 1990’s in Europe, the United States, and in Australia. 2007 data from a survey of pest control companies in the latter country indicated a 4500% increase over a seven year period.<ref>''Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): An evidence-based analysis of the current situation,'' Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests, p. 1, 2008</ref><ref>Doggett S.L. and R.C. Russel, ''Bed bugs: Recent Trends and developments,'' Australian</ref>  

A current resurgence of bed bug infestations appears to have started almost synchronously in the late 1990s in Europe, the United States, and in Australia. 2007 data from a survey of pest control companies in the latter country indicated a 4500% increase over a seven-year period.<ref>''Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): An evidence-based analysis of the current situation,'' Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests, p. 1, 2008</ref><ref>Doggett S.L. and R.C. Russel, ''Bed bugs: Recent Trends and developments,'' Australian</ref>  

According to a new survey from the National Pest Management Association (NPMA), one out of five Americans has had a bed bug infestation in their home or knows someone who has encountered bed bugs at home or a hotel.<ref>http://www.pctonline.com/bed-bugs-in-america.aspx</ref> The University of [[Kentucky]], which has provided much research on bed bugs, and the United States' National Pest Management Association reported that 95% of 521 U.S. pest management companies reported encountering a bed bug infestation in the past year.<ref>Potter MF, et al. ''Bugs Without Borders—Executive Summary'', Fairfax, VA:National Pest Management Association, Inc. (2010)</ref><ref>http://www.npmapestworld.org/documents/bbsurveyexecsummaryjuly26.pdf</ref>  Canada  reported similar numbers (98%), as well as  Europe (92%), and Africa/Middle East (90%).  In contrast, prior to the year 2000 only 25% of U.S. survey respondents reported bed bug infestations. In addition,  76 percent of survey respondents affirmed that bed bugs are the most difficult pest to treat, more so than cockroaches, ants and termites. "The results of the global study suggest that we are on the threshold of a bed bug pandemic, not just in the United States, but around the world," said Missy Henriksen, vice president of public affairs for NPMA. The global survey included pest control firms in Latin America and Asia, where stronger, organophosphate chemicals are permitted.<ref>[http://www.pestworld.org/bedbug National Pest Management Association (NPMA), July 26, 2010]</ref><ref>BBC New Magazine, ''Don't let the bedbugs bite'', 2 September 2010</ref> In the United States, state and local government officials say they are being overwhelmed with complaints of bed bug infestations.

According to a new survey from the National Pest Management Association (NPMA), one out of five Americans has had a bed bug infestation in their home or knows someone who has encountered bed bugs at home or a hotel.<ref>http://www.pctonline.com/bed-bugs-in-america.aspx</ref> The University of [[Kentucky]], which has provided much research on bed bugs, and the United States' National Pest Management Association reported that 95% of 521 U.S. pest management companies reported encountering a bed bug infestation in the past year.<ref>Potter MF, et al. ''Bugs Without Borders—Executive Summary'', Fairfax, VA:National Pest Management Association, Inc. (2010)</ref><ref>http://www.npmapestworld.org/documents/bbsurveyexecsummaryjuly26.pdf</ref>  Canada  reported similar numbers (98%), as well as  Europe (92%), and Africa/Middle East (90%).  In contrast, prior to the year 2000 only 25% of U.S. survey respondents reported bed bug infestations. In addition,  76 percent of survey respondents affirmed that bed bugs are the most difficult pest to treat, more so than cockroaches, ants and termites. "The results of the global study suggest that we are on the threshold of a bed bug pandemic, not just in the United States, but around the world," said Missy Henriksen, vice president of public affairs for NPMA. The global survey included pest control firms in Latin America and Asia, where stronger, organophosphate chemicals are permitted.<ref>[http://www.pestworld.org/bedbug National Pest Management Association (NPMA), July 26, 2010]</ref><ref>BBC New Magazine, ''Don't let the bedbugs bite'', 2 September 2010</ref> In the United States, state and local government officials say they are being overwhelmed with complaints of bed bug infestations.

Like  stable flies, sucking lice, bed bugs, mosquitoes, true bugs, and aphids, bed bugs have a piercing-sucking mouthpart that consists of a long slender tube which is forced into plant or animal tissue to suck out fluids or blood.<ref>ttp://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/entml2/s12.pdf</ref> Like mosquitoes and certain other insects, bed bugs inject an anticoagulant into their host before extracting blood, which results in a burning itching in persons who allergically react to the anticoagulant.   

Like  stable flies, sucking lice, bed bugs, mosquitoes, true bugs, and aphids, bed bugs have a piercing-sucking mouthpart that consists of a long slender tube which is forced into plant or animal tissue to suck out fluids or blood.<ref>ttp://www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/entml2/s12.pdf</ref> Like mosquitoes and certain other insects, bed bugs inject an anticoagulant into their host before extracting blood, which results in a burning itching in persons who allergically react to the anticoagulant.   

Male bed bugs grab and attempt to mate with any other bed bug that has had a full meal of blood recently, using its hypodermic reproductive appendage. Females grow a mass of the kinds of cells associated with immune defense in the  the abdominal area most commonly pierced by the male. Male bed bugs lack this, and when [[homosexual]] mating attempts are made upon a male then the victim  releases a blend of chemicals known as the bed bug alarm [[pheromone]]. This recent discovery has resulted in some bed bug insecticides containing the pheromone.<ref>''Scent of alarm identifies male bed bugs,'' Science news, November 21st, 2009; Vol.176 #11</ref>  Bed bugs also release this substance when they are frightened, the smell of which has been described as a sickening sweet odor or as rotting raspberries.<ref>''The Best Control or Bed Bugs'', cp. 18</ref> Bed bugs in an all-male confinement experiment had reduced longevity compared to singly held males.<ref>The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, Volume 78, Issue 6, December 2009, Pages 1471-1475</ref>  

Male bed bugs grab and attempt to mate with any other bed bug that has had a full meal of blood recently, using its hypodermic reproductive appendage. Females grow a mass of the kinds of cells associated with immune defense in the abdominal area most commonly pierced by the male. Male bed bugs lack this, and when [[homosexual]] mating attempts are made upon a male then the victim  releases a blend of chemicals known as the bed bug alarm [[pheromone]]. This recent discovery has resulted in some bed bug insecticides containing the pheromone.<ref>''Scent of alarm identifies male bed bugs,'' Science news, November 21st, 2009; Vol.176 #11</ref>  Bed bugs also release this substance when they are frightened, the smell of which has been described as a sickening sweet odor or as rotting raspberries.<ref>''The Best Control or Bed Bugs'', cp. 18</ref> Bed bugs in an all-male confinement experiment had reduced longevity compared to singly held males.<ref>The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, Volume 78, Issue 6, December 2009, Pages 1471-1475</ref>  

Males will mate with females much more often (roughly 20 times more) than necessary for fertilization of eggs and as a result the females live about 25% less long than they would otherwise.<ref>http://newyorkvsbedbugs.org/2010/02/16/laundry-and-the-motivating-power-of-the-bed-bug-web-qa-with-richard-naylor/</ref>

Males will mate with females much more often (roughly 20 times more) than necessary for fertilization of eggs and as a result the females live about 25% less long than they would otherwise.<ref>http://newyorkvsbedbugs.org/2010/02/16/laundry-and-the-motivating-power-of-the-bed-bug-web-qa-with-richard-naylor/</ref>

===Chemical insecticides===

===Chemical insecticides===

[[Chemical]] [[Insecticide]]s known to control and kill bed bugs fall into four main different categories, with first being organochlorines, which include DDT. being powerful but also the most notorious class of pesticides is aldrin, chlordane, endrin, endosulfan, dicofol and others. These are typically effective against a broad spectrum of insects, and  are relatively low in toxicity to mammals, but they often remain in the environment long after application (especially DDT) and in organisms long after exposure, which led to most of them of them being banned or their use being very restricted.  

[[Chemical]] [[Insecticide]]s known to control and kill bed bugs fall into four main different categories, with first being organochlorines, which include DDT. being powerful but also the most notorious class of pesticides is aldrin, chlordane, endrin, endosulfan, dicofol and others. These are typically effective against a broad spectrum of insects, and  are relatively low in toxicity to mammals, but they often remain in the environment long after application (especially DDT) and in organisms long after exposure, which led to most of them being banned or their use being very restricted.  

The second class is the organophosphates (OPs), which include parathion, malathion, diazinon, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos,  pirimiphos methyl (Actellic). These work by effecting over-stimulation of the nervous system which eventually causes the insect to die. While these break down much faster than organochlorines, they have much greater acute toxicity and can effects mammals as well as insects. After the passing of of the Food Quality Protection Act, a 10-year review by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA)resulted in  17 of of the 49 of the OP pesticides which had been registered for use in pest control being banned or heavily restricted, including the popular household pesticides diazinon and chlorpyrifos.   

The second class is the organophosphates (OPs), which include parathion, malathion, diazinon, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos,  pirimiphos methyl (Actellic). These work by effecting over-stimulation of the nervous system which eventually causes the insect to die. While these break down much faster than organochlorines, they have much greater acute toxicity and can effects mammals as well as insects. After the passing of the Food Quality Protection Act, a 10-year review by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA)resulted in  17 of the 49 of the OP pesticides which had been registered for use in pest control being banned or heavily restricted, including the popular household pesticides diazinon and chlorpyrifos.   

The third class is that of carbamates, which include carbofuran, aldicarb (Temik), chlorfenapyr (Propoxur),  carbaryl (Sevin), and bendiocarb (Ficam). Carbamates typically degrade faster than organochlorines, and some of them can be just as lethal, while others are seen as less toxic.  The use of such is restricted by the EPA, and which has banned the highly toxic carbofuran, while the manufacturer of bendiocarb has voluntarily cancelled its registration, which can cost up to $100 million in order to obtain EPA approval.  

The third class is that of carbamates, which include carbofuran, aldicarb (Temik), chlorfenapyr (Propoxur),  carbaryl (Sevin), and bendiocarb (Ficam). Carbamates typically degrade faster than organochlorines, and some of them can be just as lethal, while others are seen as less toxic.  The use of such is restricted by the EPA, and which has banned the highly toxic carbofuran, while the manufacturer of bendiocarb has voluntarily cancelled its registration, which can cost up to $100 million in order to obtain EPA approval.  

The most effective natural means of eliminating bed bugs involves pumping superheated air into an mildly pressurized (windows sealed) house, or heating individual room to around 140&nbsp;°F Temperature probes are used to ensure that internal temperatures are high enough to kill the bugs and their eggs.<ref>http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201006/2054573271.html</ref>

The most effective natural means of eliminating bed bugs involves pumping superheated air into an mildly pressurized (windows sealed) house, or heating individual room to around 140&nbsp;°F Temperature probes are used to ensure that internal temperatures are high enough to kill the bugs and their eggs.<ref>http://www.faqs.org/periodicals/201006/2054573271.html</ref>

One study concluded that it is important to achieve and maintain temperatures of above  118.4&nbsp;°F (48&nbsp;°C) for more than 20 min to effectively kill all life stages of bed bugs, considering the clutter in treated spaces and the fact that bed bugs move to cooler temperatures, treatment times must be much longer to penetrate cracks and crevices,  At 60-min exposure to 113&nbsp;°F , approximately 50% of adult bed bugs exposed survived, while 20% survived after 4 hours. Complete mortality was obtained at temperatures 118.4&nbsp;°F, 122&nbsp;°F, and 131&nbsp;°F for all exposure times except 10- min at 118.4&nbsp;°F.  Even if some nymphs emerged, they did not develop at temperatures higher than 118.4&nbsp;°F. No differences in mortality were shown between fed and unfed bed bugs.

One study concluded that it is important to achieve and maintain temperatures of above  118.4&nbsp;°F (48&nbsp;°C) for more than 20 min to effectively kill all life stages of bed bugs, considering the clutter in treated spaces and the fact that bed bugs move to cooler temperatures, treatment times must be much longer to penetrate cracks and crevices,  At 60-min exposure to 113&nbsp;°F, approximately 50% of adult bed bugs exposed survived, while 20% survived after 4 hours. Complete mortality was obtained at temperatures 118.4&nbsp;°F, 122&nbsp;°F, and 131&nbsp;°F for all exposure times except 10- min at 118.4&nbsp;°F.  Even if some nymphs emerged, they did not develop at temperatures higher than 118.4&nbsp;°F. No differences in mortality were shown between fed and unfed bed bugs.

90% higher temperatures than previously reported were required to kill bed bugs when the temperature rose slowly — possibly because of the way previous heat tests have been conducted — but it is not known what enables bedbugs to resist gradual heat stress.<ref>[http://www.propanecouncil.org/uploadedFiles/Council/Research_and_Development/REP_12221%20Efficacy%20of%20Heat%20on%20Bed%20Bugs.pdf Fundamental Research on the Efficacy of Heat on Bed Bugs and Heat Transfer in Mattresses''], TEMP-AIR, INC</ref>

90% higher temperatures than previously reported were required to kill bed bugs when the temperature rose slowly — possibly because of the way previous heat tests have been conducted — but it is not known what enables bedbugs to resist gradual heat stress.<ref>[http://www.propanecouncil.org/uploadedFiles/Council/Research_and_Development/REP_12221%20Efficacy%20of%20Heat%20on%20Bed%20Bugs.pdf Fundamental Research on the Efficacy of Heat on Bed Bugs and Heat Transfer in Mattresses''], TEMP-AIR, INC</ref>