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'''Joseph II''' (1741&ndash;1790), Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Hapsburg (Austrian) territories, was the arch-embodiment of the [[Enlightenment]] spirit of the later 18th-century reforming monarchs known as the benevolent despots, or [[enlightened despotism|enlightened despots]].<ref> Hamish H. Scott, ed. ''Enlightened Absolutism,'' (1990)</ref> His career is notable for the scope of the reforms designed to modernize his empire, for the dedication with which he served the state, for the impetuosity with which he acted, for the violent opposition he aroused in all classes in every part of his empire for his excessive reforms, and for the failure which dogged most of his projects.[[File:Josephii.jpg|thumb|220px]]

'''Joseph II''' (1741&ndash;1790), Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Hapsburg (Austrian) territories, was the arch-embodiment of the [[Enlightenment]] spirit of the later 18th-century reforming monarchs known as the benevolent despots, or [[enlightened despotism|enlightened despots]].<ref>Hamish H. Scott, ed. ''Enlightened Absolutism,'' (1990)</ref> His career is notable for the scope of the reforms designed to modernize his empire, for the dedication with which he served the state, for the impetuosity with which he acted, for the violent opposition he aroused in all classes in every part of his empire for his excessive reforms, and for the failure which dogged most of his projects.[[File:Josephii.jpg|thumb|220px]]

==Life==

==Life==

Joseph II was born on March 13, 1741, the eldest son of [[Maria Theresa]] and the future Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis I]] (r. 1745&ndash;1765). His youth coincided with the critical span of Austrian history marked by the mid-18th-century [[War of the Austrian Succession]] and the [[Seven Years' War]]. In the course of this ordeal, the Hapsburg monarchy narrowly avoided dismemberment; it was fortunate to escape with the loss of no more than its richest province, Silesia. This wartime experience conditioned Joseph's entire outlook, instilling in him a passion for reform as a means of enhancing the strength and efficiency of his dominions, a love for the army, and the ambition to leave his mark in history as a military conqueror.

Joseph II was born on March 13, 1741, the eldest son of [[Maria Theresa]] and the future Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis I]] (r. 1745&ndash;1765). His youth coincided with the critical span of Austrian history marked by the mid-18th-century [[War of the Austrian Succession]] and the [[Seven Years' War]]. In the course of this ordeal, the Hapsburg monarchy narrowly avoided dismemberment; it was fortunate to escape with the loss of no more than its richest province, Silesia. This wartime experience conditioned Joseph's entire outlook, instilling in him a passion for reform as a means of enhancing the strength and efficiency of his dominions, a love for the army, and the ambition to leave his mark in history as a military conqueror.

Joseph set about building a rational, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a hierarchy under himself as supreme autocrat. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued with the same dedicated spirit of service to the state that he himself had. It was recruited without favor for class or ethnic origins, and promotion was solely by merit. To further uniformity, the emperor made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Empire. The Hungarian assembly was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together

Joseph set about building a rational, centralized, and uniform government for his diverse lands, a hierarchy under himself as supreme autocrat. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued with the same dedicated spirit of service to the state that he himself had. It was recruited without favor for class or ethnic origins, and promotion was solely by merit. To further uniformity, the emperor made German the compulsory language of official business throughout the Empire. The Hungarian assembly was stripped of its prerogatives, and not even called together

As privy finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739&ndash;1813) introduced a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.<ref> P. G. M. Dickson, "Count Karl von Zinzendorf's 'New Accountancy': the Structure of Austrian Government Finance in Peace and War, 1781-1791." ''International History Review'' 2007 29(1): 22-56. Issn: 0707-5332 </ref>

As privy finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739&ndash;1813) introduced a uniform system of accounting for state revenues, expenditures, and debts of the territories of the Austrian crown. Austria was more successful than France in meeting regular expenditures and in gaining credit. However, the the events of Joseph II's last years also suggest that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.<ref>P. G. M. Dickson, "Count Karl von Zinzendorf's 'New Accountancy': the Structure of Austrian Government Finance in Peace and War, 1781-1791." ''International History Review'' 2007 29(1): 22-56. Issn: 0707-5332</ref>

===Legal reform===

===Legal reform===

The busy Joseph inspired a complete reform of the legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre.  

The busy Joseph inspired a complete reform of the legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances, and imposed the principle of complete equality of treatment for all offenders. He ended censorship of the press and theatre.  

In 1781&ndash;82 he extended full legal freedom to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by officials of the crown and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and eventually reversed the policy. Indeed, in Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the magnates was such that Joseph had to content himself for a while with halfway measures. Of the five million Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled the land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to particular estates. After the collapse of the peasant revolt of Horea, 1784&ndash;85, in which over a hundred nobles were killed, the emperor acted. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the Hungarian peasantry promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism finally ended in 1848.<ref> Padover, ''The Revolutionary Emperor,'' 293-300</ref>  

In 1781&ndash;82 he extended full legal freedom to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated by officials of the crown and taxes were levied upon all income derived from land. The landlords, however, found their economic position threatened, and eventually reversed the policy. Indeed, in Hungary and Transylvania, the resistance of the magnates was such that Joseph had to content himself for a while with halfway measures. Of the five million Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled the land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to particular estates. After the collapse of the peasant revolt of Horea, 1784&ndash;85, in which over a hundred nobles were killed, the emperor acted. His Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom but did not give the peasants ownership of the land or freedom from dues owed to the landowning nobles. It did give them personal freedom. Emancipation of the Hungarian peasantry promoted the growth of a new class of taxable landholders, but it did not abolish the deep-seated ills of feudalism and the exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism finally ended in 1848.<ref>Padover, ''The Revolutionary Emperor,'' 293-300</ref>  

To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph caused an appraisal of all the lands of the empire to be made so that he might impose a single and egalitarian tax on land.  The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon.

To equalize the incidence of taxation, Joseph caused an appraisal of all the lands of the empire to be made so that he might impose a single and egalitarian tax on land.  The goal was to modernize the relationship of dependence between the landowners and peasantry, relieve some of the tax burden on the peasantry, and increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and land reforms as being interconnected and strove to implement them at the same time. The various commissions he established to formulate and carry out the reforms met resistance among the nobility, the peasantry, and some officials. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or after Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure from the start because they tried to change too much in too short a time, and tried to radically alter the traditional customs and relationships that the villagers had long depended upon.

To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few.  He created scholarships for talented poor students, and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire.

To produce a literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher education on practical lines was offered for a select few.  He created scholarships for talented poor students, and allowed the establishment of schools for Jews and other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the country change its language of instruction from Latin to German, a highly controversial step in a multilingual empire.

By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better educated doctors requesting improved facilities; cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals; and the monarchy's wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krakenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems causing epidemics a 20% death rate in the new hospital. which undercut Joseph's plan, but the city became preeminent in the medical field in the next century.<ref> Paul P. Bernard, "The Limits of Absolutism: Joseph II and the Allgemeines Krankenhaus." ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 1975 9(2): 193-215. Issn: 0013-2586 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-2586%28197524%2F197624%299%3A2%3C193%3ATLOAJI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E  in Jstor] </ref>  

By the 18th century, centralization was the trend in medicine because more and better educated doctors requesting improved facilities; cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals; and the monarchy's wanted to end costly epidemics and quarantines. Joseph attempted to centralize medical care in Vienna through the construction of a single, large hospital, the famous Allgemeines Krakenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization worsened sanitation problems causing epidemics a 20% death rate in the new hospital. which undercut Joseph's plan, but the city became preeminent in the medical field in the next century.<ref>Paul P. Bernard, "The Limits of Absolutism: Joseph II and the Allgemeines Krankenhaus." ''Eighteenth-Century Studies'' 1975 9(2): 193-215. Issn: 0013-2586 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-2586%28197524%2F197624%299%3A2%3C193%3ATLOAJI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E  in Jstor]</ref>  

===Religion===

===Religion===

===Reaction===

===Reaction===

The nobility throughout his empire hated him: they hated his taxes, his egalitarianism, his despotism and his puritanism. In Belgium and Hungary everyone resented the way he tried to do away with all regional government, and to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed the Emperor's interference in every detail of their daily lives. Why should they be forbidden to bake ginger-bread just because Joseph thought it bad for the stomach? Why the Imperial edict demanding the breast-feeding of infants? Why the banning of corsets? From these and a thousand other petty regulations, enforced by a secret police, it looked to the Austrians as though Joseph were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Imperial Police reported to him: "All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect for the sovereign, are discontented and indignant."<ref> Saul K. Padover, ''The Revolutionary Emperor, Joseph the Second 1741-1790.'' (1934) pp 384-85.</ref>

The nobility throughout his empire hated him: they hated his taxes, his egalitarianism, his despotism and his puritanism. In Belgium and Hungary everyone resented the way he tried to do away with all regional government, and to subordinate everything to his own personal rule in Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed the Emperor's interference in every detail of their daily lives. Why should they be forbidden to bake ginger-bread just because Joseph thought it bad for the stomach? Why the Imperial edict demanding the breast-feeding of infants? Why the banning of corsets? From these and a thousand other petty regulations, enforced by a secret police, it looked to the Austrians as though Joseph were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the director of the Imperial Police reported to him: "All classes, and even those who have the greatest respect for the sovereign, are discontented and indignant."<ref>Saul K. Padover, ''The Revolutionary Emperor, Joseph the Second 1741-1790.'' (1934) pp 384-85.</ref>

In Lombardy (in northern Italy) the cautious reforms of Maria Theresa in Lombardy enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the Milanese principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes the middle class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism.

In Lombardy (in northern Italy) the cautious reforms of Maria Theresa in Lombardy enjoyed support from local reformers. Joseph II, however, by creating a powerful imperial officialdom directed from Vienna, undercut the dominant position of the Milanese principate and the traditions of jurisdiction and administration. In the place of provincial autonomy he established an unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardy politically and economically to a fringe area of the Empire. As a reaction to these radical changes the middle class reformers shifted away from cooperation to strong resistance. From this basis appeared the beginnings of the later Lombard liberalism.

By 1790 rebellions had broken out in protest against Joseph's reforms in Belgium and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. His health shattered by disease, alone, and unpopular in all his lands, the bitter emperor died February 20, 1790. He was not yet forty-nine.  Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, and they triumphed in the end. Joseph's attempt to reform the Hungarian lands illustrates the weakness of absolutism in the face of well-defended feudal liberties.<ref> P. G. M. Dickson, "Monarchy and Bureaucracy in Late Eighteenth-century Austria." ''English Historical Review'' 1995 110(436): 323-367. Issn: 0013-8266 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266%28199504%29110%3A436%3C323%3AMABILE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K  in Jstor]</ref>

By 1790 rebellions had broken out in protest against Joseph's reforms in Belgium and Hungary, and his other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution, and he was forced to sacrifice some of his reform projects. His health shattered by disease, alone, and unpopular in all his lands, the bitter emperor died February 20, 1790. He was not yet forty-nine.  Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, and they triumphed in the end. Joseph's attempt to reform the Hungarian lands illustrates the weakness of absolutism in the face of well-defended feudal liberties.<ref>P. G. M. Dickson, "Monarchy and Bureaucracy in Late Eighteenth-century Austria." ''English Historical Review'' 1995 110(436): 323-367. Issn: 0013-8266 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266%28199504%29110%3A436%3C323%3AMABILE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K  in Jstor]</ref>

Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II were continued to varying degrees under his successor Leopold and later successors, and given an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century, handled by much better politicians than Joseph II.

Behind his numerous reforms lay a comprehensive program influenced by the doctrines of enlightened absolutism, natural law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. With a goal of establishing a uniform legal framework to replace heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of freedom and equality and were based on a conception of the state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major break since the preceding reforms under Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at the end of the Josephinian era. The reforms initiated by Joseph II were continued to varying degrees under his successor Leopold and later successors, and given an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They have been seen as providing a foundation for subsequent reforms extending into the 20th century, handled by much better politicians than Joseph II.

*  Blanning, T. C. W. ''Joseph II and Enlightened Despotism'' (1984).  

*  Blanning, T. C. W. ''Joseph II and Enlightened Despotism'' (1984).  

*  Bright, James Franck.  ''Joseph II,'' (1897) 222 pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=4i82AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Franck+inauthor:Bright&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]

*  Bright, James Franck.  ''Joseph II,'' (1897) 222 pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=4i82AAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Franck+inauthor:Bright&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]

* Dickson, P. G. M. "Joseph II's Reshaping of the Austrian Church," ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 36, No. 1. (Mar., 1993), pp. 89-114. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28199303%2936%3A1%3C89%3AJIROTA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* Dickson, P. G. M. "Joseph II's Reshaping of the Austrian Church," ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 36, No. 1. (Mar., 1993), pp.&nbsp;89–114. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-246X%28199303%2936%3A1%3C89%3AJIROTA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* Henderson, Nicholas.  "Joseph II", ''History Today''1991 41(March): 21-27. ISSN: 0018-2753  Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* Henderson, Nicholas.  "Joseph II", ''History Today''1991 41(March): 21-27. ISSN: 0018-2753  Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* McHugh, James T. "Last of the Enlightened Despots: a Comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II."  ''Social Science Journal'' 1995 32(1): 69-85. Issn: 0362-3319 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

* McHugh, James T. "Last of the Enlightened Despots: a Comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II."  ''Social Science Journal'' 1995 32(1): 69-85. Issn: 0362-3319 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]

[[category:Monarchs]]

[[Category:Monarchs]]

[[category:Enlightenment]]

[[Category:Enlightenment]]