Changes

==Political career==

==Political career==

Madison served in the Virginia state legislature (1776-79) and became known as a protégé of Jefferson, attaining prominence in state politics; he helped draft the [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]]. Responding to demands from Baptists and Presbyterians, it disestablished the Anglican Church (Church of England), and disclaimed any power of state compulsion in religious matters.  He persuaded Virginia to turn over its claims to northwestern territories (consisting of most of modern-day Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois) to the [[Continental Congress]].  

Madison served in the Virginia state legislature (1776–79) and became known as a protégé of Jefferson, attaining prominence in state politics; he helped draft the [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]]. Responding to demands from Baptists and Presbyterians, it disestablished the Anglican Church (Church of England), and disclaimed any power of state compulsion in religious matters.  He persuaded Virginia to turn over its claims to northwestern territories (consisting of most of modern-day Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois) to the [[Continental Congress]].  

As  delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] (1780-83), Madison was considered a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary detail.

As  delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] (1780–83), Madison was considered a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary detail.

==Father of the Constitution==

==Father of the Constitution==

==The ''Federalist Papers''==

==The ''Federalist Papers''==

To aid the push for ratification, Madison joined [[Alexander Hamilton]] (and also [[John Jay]]) to write the ''[[The Federalist Papers]]''. These essays that immediately became the single most important interpretation of the Constitution, and remains so among jurists and scholars. Madison a third of them, most famously paper No. 10, in which he explained how a large country with many different interests and factions could support republican values better than a small country dominated by a few special interests. His interpretation was largely ignored at the time, but in the 20th century became a central part of the pluralist interpretation of American politics.<ref>Kramer, 1999</ref>  Madison is often hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his role in its drafting and ratification. However, he protested the title as being "a credit to which I have no claim... [The Constitution] was not, like the fabled Goddess of Wisdom, the offspring of a single brain.  It ought to be regarded as the work of many heads and many hands".<ref> Lance Banning, "James Madison: Federalist," note 1, [http://www.loc.gov/loc/madison/banning-paper.html].</ref>

To aid the push for ratification, Madison joined [[Alexander Hamilton]] (and also [[John Jay]]) to write the ''[[The Federalist Papers]]''. These essays that immediately became the single most important interpretation of the Constitution, and remains so among jurists and scholars. Madison a third of them, most famously paper No. 10, in which he explained how a large country with many different interests and factions could support republican values better than a small country dominated by a few special interests. His interpretation was largely ignored at the time, but in the 20th century became a central part of the pluralist interpretation of American politics.<ref>Kramer, 1999</ref>  Madison is often hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his role in its drafting and ratification. However, he protested the title as being "a credit to which I have no claim... [The Constitution] was not, like the fabled Goddess of Wisdom, the offspring of a single brain.  It ought to be regarded as the work of many heads and many hands".<ref>Lance Banning, "James Madison: Federalist," note 1, [http://www.loc.gov/loc/madison/banning-paper.html].</ref>

Back in Virginia in 1788, Madison led the fight for ratification of the Constitution at the state's convention, oratorically dueling with [[Patrick Henry]] and other Anti-Federalists who tried to block the nationalistic document. The compromise reached was ratification together with the promise of a Bill of Rights that would be promptly added.  All 13 states ratified the new Constitution and it took effect in 1789, as Washington was sworn in as president.

Back in Virginia in 1788, Madison led the fight for ratification of the Constitution at the state's convention, oratorically dueling with [[Patrick Henry]] and other Anti-Federalists who tried to block the nationalistic document. The compromise reached was ratification together with the promise of a Bill of Rights that would be promptly added.  All 13 states ratified the new Constitution and it took effect in 1789, as Washington was sworn in as president.

==Author of Bill of Rights ==

==Author of Bill of Rights ==

Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia legislature not to elect Madison as one of their first Senators; but Madison was elected by the voters to the new House of Representatives and became a dominant leader from the First Congress (1789-90) through the Fourth Congress (1797-98).  

Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia legislature not to elect Madison as one of their first Senators; but Madison was elected by the voters to the new House of Representatives and became a dominant leader from the First Congress (1789–90) through the Fourth Congress (1797–98).  

Initially Madison had three main objections to a specific bill of rights:

Initially Madison had three main objections to a specific bill of rights:

*it was unnecessary, since it purported to protect against powers that the federal government had not been granted;

*it was unnecessary, since it purported to protect against powers that the federal government had not been granted;

* it was dangerous, since enumeration of some rights might be taken to imply the absence of other rights; and  

* it was dangerous, since enumeration of some rights might be taken to imply the absence of other rights; and  

* at the state level, bills of rights had proven to be useless paper barriers against government powers.<ref> Wood, 2006b.</ref>

* at the state level, bills of rights had proven to be useless paper barriers against government powers.<ref>Wood, 2006b.</ref>

But the anti-Federalists in many states had demanded a bill of rights in exchange for their support for ratification. Over two hundred proposals were submitted from throughout the country. Madison ignored the proposals for structural change of the government, and synthesized the others into a short list of proposals for the protection of civil rights, such as free speech and habeas corpus. In June 1789 Madison offered a package of twelve proposed amendments to the House. Reversing his previous opposition he hounded his colleagues relentlessly to accept his proposed amendments.<ref>Wood, 2006b.</ref>

But the anti-Federalists in many states had demanded a bill of rights in exchange for their support for ratification. Over two hundred proposals were submitted from throughout the country. Madison ignored the proposals for structural change of the government, and synthesized the others into a short list of proposals for the protection of civil rights, such as free speech and habeas corpus. In June 1789 Madison offered a package of twelve proposed amendments to the House. Reversing his previous opposition he hounded his colleagues relentlessly to accept his proposed amendments.<ref>Wood, 2006b.</ref>

The main challenge which faced the Jefferson Administration was navigating between the two great empires of Britain and France, which were almost constantly at war. The first great triumph was the [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803, made possible when [[Napoleon]] realized he could not defend that vast territory, and it was to France's advantage that Britain not seize it. Madison and President Jefferson reversed party policy to negotiate for the Purchase and then win Congressional approval. Madison tried to maintain neutrality between Britain and France, but at the same time insisted on the legal rights of the U.S. under international law.  Neither London nor Paris showed much respect, however. Madison and Jefferson decided on an [[Embargo of 1807|embargo]] to punish Britain and France, forbidding Americans to trade with any foreign nation. The embargo failed as foreign policy, and instead caused massive hardships in the northeastern seaboard, which depended on foreign trade.  

The main challenge which faced the Jefferson Administration was navigating between the two great empires of Britain and France, which were almost constantly at war. The first great triumph was the [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803, made possible when [[Napoleon]] realized he could not defend that vast territory, and it was to France's advantage that Britain not seize it. Madison and President Jefferson reversed party policy to negotiate for the Purchase and then win Congressional approval. Madison tried to maintain neutrality between Britain and France, but at the same time insisted on the legal rights of the U.S. under international law.  Neither London nor Paris showed much respect, however. Madison and Jefferson decided on an [[Embargo of 1807|embargo]] to punish Britain and France, forbidding Americans to trade with any foreign nation. The embargo failed as foreign policy, and instead caused massive hardships in the northeastern seaboard, which depended on foreign trade.  

Jefferson and Madison looked to the [[yeoman]]--the independent  farmer --for virtues that were founded on an agrarian economy like that of Virginia. They were determined to avoid war, because war meant large armies, permanent navies, military virtues in opposition to the yeoman, new taxes, and increases in executive power. The result they feared would weaken liberty and republicanism. But they were not isolationist. Instead Jefferson and Madison put their faith in the power of American commerce to achieve their objectives, though threats like the boycott. The boycotts failed and Madison took a poorly prepared nation to war in 1812. <ref> Smith 2004</ref>  

Jefferson and Madison looked to the [[yeoman]]—the independent  farmer—for virtues that were founded on an agrarian economy like that of Virginia. They were determined to avoid war, because war meant large armies, permanent navies, military virtues in opposition to the yeoman, new taxes, and increases in executive power. The result they feared would weaken liberty and republicanism. But they were not isolationist. Instead Jefferson and Madison put their faith in the power of American commerce to achieve their objectives, though threats like the boycott. The boycotts failed and Madison took a poorly prepared nation to war in 1812.<ref>Smith 2004</ref>  

The party's Congressional caucus chose presidential candidates, and Madison was selected in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1808|election of 1808]], easily defeating [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], riding on the coattails of Jefferson's popularity. Congress repealed the failed embargo as Madison took office.

The party's Congressional caucus chose presidential candidates, and Madison was selected in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1808|election of 1808]], easily defeating [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], riding on the coattails of Jefferson's popularity. Congress repealed the failed embargo as Madison took office.

In the ensuing [[War of 1812]], the British and their Indian allies won numerous victories, including the capture of Detroit after the American general there surrendered to a smaller force without a fight, and a British raid burned the White House.  The British alliance with the western Indians proved a failure, as the [[Battle of Lake Erie]] in 1813 secured American control of the west, [[Tecumseh]] was killed, and his Indian coalition destroyed at the Battle of the Thames.  A standoff was reached on the Canadian border, as Americans controlled Lake Erie and the British controlled Lake Ontario after a ship-building race. The British sent a major invasion force into New York but Americans sank the supporting fleet and the British retreated to Canada in 1814. At sea, the British blockaded the entire American coastline, cutting off both foreign trade and domestic trade between ports.  Economic hardship was severe in New England, but entrepreneurs built factories that soon became the basis of the industrial revolution in America.

In the ensuing [[War of 1812]], the British and their Indian allies won numerous victories, including the capture of Detroit after the American general there surrendered to a smaller force without a fight, and a British raid burned the White House.  The British alliance with the western Indians proved a failure, as the [[Battle of Lake Erie]] in 1813 secured American control of the west, [[Tecumseh]] was killed, and his Indian coalition destroyed at the Battle of the Thames.  A standoff was reached on the Canadian border, as Americans controlled Lake Erie and the British controlled Lake Ontario after a ship-building race. The British sent a major invasion force into New York but Americans sank the supporting fleet and the British retreated to Canada in 1814. At sea, the British blockaded the entire American coastline, cutting off both foreign trade and domestic trade between ports.  Economic hardship was severe in New England, but entrepreneurs built factories that soon became the basis of the industrial revolution in America.

Madison faced formidable obstacles--a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and amazingly incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. Most serious was lack of unified popular support. There were serious threats of disunion from New England, which engaged in massive smuggling to Canada and refused to provide financial support or soldiers.<ref>Stagg, 1983.</ref> However [[Andrew Jackson]] in the South and [[William Henry Harrison]] in the West destroyed the main Indian threats by 1813.

Madison faced formidable obstacles—a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and amazingly incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. Most serious was lack of unified popular support. There were serious threats of disunion from New England, which engaged in massive smuggling to Canada and refused to provide financial support or soldiers.<ref>Stagg, 1983.</ref> However [[Andrew Jackson]] in the South and [[William Henry Harrison]] in the West destroyed the main Indian threats by 1813.

After the apparent defeat of [[Napoleon]] in 1814, both the British and Americans were exhausted, the causes of the war had been forgotten, the Indian issue was resolved, and it was time for peace.  New England Federalists, however, set up a defeatist [[Hartford Convention]] that discussed secession. The [[Treaty of Ghent]] ended the war in 1815.  There were no territorial gains on either side as both sides returned to ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'', that is, the previous boundaries.  The [[Battle of New Orleans]], in which [[Andrew Jackson]] defeated the British regulars, was fought fifteen days after the treaty was signed but before the news of the signing reached New Orleans.  

After the apparent defeat of [[Napoleon]] in 1814, both the British and Americans were exhausted, the causes of the war had been forgotten, the Indian issue was resolved, and it was time for peace.  New England Federalists, however, set up a defeatist [[Hartford Convention]] that discussed secession. The [[Treaty of Ghent]] ended the war in 1815.  There were no territorial gains on either side as both sides returned to ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'', that is, the previous boundaries.  The [[Battle of New Orleans]], in which [[Andrew Jackson]] defeated the British regulars, was fought fifteen days after the treaty was signed but before the news of the signing reached New Orleans.  

==Retirement==

==Retirement==

When Madison left office in 1817, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Virginia; not far from Jefferson's [[Monticello]]. Madison was then 65 years old. Dolley, who thought they would finally have a chance to travel to Paris, was 49. But as with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he entered, due to the steady financial collapse of his plantation. Some historians speculate that his mounting debt was one of the chief reasons why he refused to allow his notes on the Constitution Convention, or its official records which he possessed, to be published in his lifetime.<ref> "He knew the value of his notes, and wanted them to bring money to his estate for Dolley's use as his plantation failed -- he was hoping for one hundred thousand dollars from the sale of his papers, of which the notes were the gem." Wills, 2002, p. 163.</ref>. Madison's financial troubles and deteriorating mental and physical health would continue to consume him.  By the 1830s, troubled by debts that were threatening to bankrupt him, Madison's mental agitation led to physical collapse. <ref>McCoy, 1989, p.151.</ref>

When Madison left office in 1817, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Virginia; not far from Jefferson's [[Monticello]]. Madison was then 65 years old. Dolley, who thought they would finally have a chance to travel to Paris, was 49. But as with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he entered, due to the steady financial collapse of his plantation. Some historians speculate that his mounting debt was one of the chief reasons why he refused to allow his notes on the Constitution Convention, or its official records which he possessed, to be published in his lifetime.<ref>"He knew the value of his notes, and wanted them to bring money to his estate for Dolley's use as his plantation failed -- he was hoping for one hundred thousand dollars from the sale of his papers, of which the notes were the gem." Wills, 2002, p. 163.</ref>  Madison's financial troubles and deteriorating mental and physical health would continue to consume him.  By the 1830s, troubled by debts that were threatening to bankrupt him, Madison's mental agitation led to physical collapse.<ref>McCoy, 1989, p.151.</ref>

In 1829, at the age of seventy-eight, Madison was chosen as a representative to the constitutional convention in Richmond for the revising of the Virginia state constitution; this was to be Madison's last appearance as a legislator and constitutional draftsman.   

In 1829, at the age of seventy-eight, Madison was chosen as a representative to the constitutional convention in Richmond for the revising of the Virginia state constitution; this was to be Madison's last appearance as a legislator and constitutional draftsman.   

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== Views on national government==  

== Views on national government==

Madison was the main drafter of the Constitution at the 1787 Philadelphia convention; his Notes remain the best source of the debates at this secret meeting.  With [[Alexander Hamilton]] and one other he coauthored [[Federalist Papers]] of 1788, which helped convince New York to ratify the Constitution.  The ''Federalist Papers'' remain to this day the most important commentary of the Constitution.

Madison was the main drafter of the Constitution at the 1787 Philadelphia convention; his Notes remain the best source of the debates at this secret meeting.  With [[Alexander Hamilton]] and one other he coauthored [[Federalist Papers]] of 1788, which helped convince New York to ratify the Constitution.  The ''Federalist Papers'' remain to this day the most important commentary of the Constitution.

Like other nationalists Madison was disgusted with the weak national government of the 1780s--it was badly organized (with no president and no courts), and lacked the power to raise taxes. It would be unable to defend the new nation in a major war.  Hamilton therefore was a strong proponent of powerful national government at this point. (He changed his mind in the 1790s.)   

Like other nationalists Madison was disgusted with the weak national government of the 1780s—it was badly organized (with no president and no courts), and lacked the power to raise taxes. It would be unable to defend the new nation in a major war.  Hamilton therefore was a strong proponent of powerful national government at this point. (He changed his mind in the 1790s.)   

In the two greatest of all the Federalist Papers, numbers 10 and 51, Madison set forth his “republican remedy for the diseases most incident to republican government.” Those diseases, in his diagnosis, were the diseases attendant on factions. He feared, above all else, factions that might mobilize a plebeian majority capable of invading the rights, especially the property rights, of rich minorities. Since he saw no way to remove the causes of such factions, he set about to control their effects. The crux of that control was his brilliant realization that a large republic would forestall overbearing majorities more effectively than the small republics beloved of all previous democratic theorists. But the precondition of that realization was his distinction between two types of factions.

In the two greatest of all the Federalist Papers, numbers 10 and 51, Madison set forth his “republican remedy for the diseases most incident to republican government.” Those diseases, in his diagnosis, were the diseases attendant on factions. He feared, above all else, factions that might mobilize a plebeian majority capable of invading the rights, especially the property rights, of rich minorities. Since he saw no way to remove the causes of such factions, he set about to control their effects. The crux of that control was his brilliant realization that a large republic would forestall overbearing majorities more effectively than the small republics beloved of all previous democratic theorists. But the precondition of that realization was his distinction between two types of factions.

===Idea of a party system===

===Idea of a party system===

Hofstadter (1969) finds the “idea of a party system” in the pluralistic, antiparty attitudes in the young Republic, especially those of [[James Madison]], primary author of the Constitution (1788) and cofounder of the Republican Party (1793). Americans did not respect English parties of the 18th-century, which were shifting coalitions of politicians in Parliament and not based on the opinions of voters. Colonial American "pre-parties" practiced a vigorous, experience-yielding factionalism. However, deferential colonial politics (as in Virginia) elected men not for their proposals but for their reputation. Liberty and [[republicanism]], the basic values of the Founding Fathers, were to be protected by legislative checks since the checks of the political process were suspect. Ideally, two houses, rather than two parties, would check each other. In advocating the Constitution, antiparty thinkers such as Madison actually were establishing the major force in creating two great parties. Madison envisioned a pluralism among the parties rather than within them. He did not foresee parties as great, bland, enveloping coalitions. Because he feared the tyranny of a majority faction, Madison sought pluralism through a large republic and through majorities made up of weak, precarious coalitions. His view of pluralism owed much to his understanding of the liberties of religious dissent; parties were to resemble the multiplicity of religious sects, as in Virginia.<ref> Richard Hofstadter, ''The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840'' (1969). </ref>

Hofstadter (1969) finds the “idea of a party system” in the pluralistic, antiparty attitudes in the young Republic, especially those of James Madison, primary author of the Constitution (1788) and cofounder of the Republican Party (1793). Americans did not respect English parties of the 18th-century, which were shifting coalitions of politicians in Parliament and not based on the opinions of voters. Colonial American "pre-parties" practiced a vigorous, experience-yielding factionalism. However, deferential colonial politics (as in Virginia) elected men not for their proposals but for their reputation. Liberty and [[republicanism]], the basic values of the Founding Fathers, were to be protected by legislative checks since the checks of the political process were suspect. Ideally, two houses, rather than two parties, would check each other. In advocating the Constitution, antiparty thinkers such as Madison actually were establishing the major force in creating two great parties. Madison envisioned a pluralism among the parties rather than within them. He did not foresee parties as great, bland, enveloping coalitions. Because he feared the tyranny of a majority faction, Madison sought pluralism through a large republic and through majorities made up of weak, precarious coalitions. His view of pluralism owed much to his understanding of the liberties of religious dissent; parties were to resemble the multiplicity of religious sects, as in Virginia.<ref>Richard Hofstadter, ''The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840'' (1969).</ref>

==the Right to Bear Arms ==

==the Right to Bear Arms ==

==Madison on Religion and Government==

==Madison on Religion and Government==

Madison, along with his fellow Democratic-Republican [[Thomas Jefferson]], were less tolerant of religion in government than other [[Founding Fathers]].<ref> Madison did NOT write the false quote:

Madison, along with his fellow Democratic-Republican [[Thomas Jefferson]], were less tolerant of religion in government than other [[Founding Fathers]].<ref>Madison did NOT write the false quote:

:"Religion is the basis and Foundation of Government.... We have staked the whole future of American civilization, not upon the power of government, far from it. We have staked the future of all of our political institutions upon the capacity of mankind for self government; upon the capacity of each and all of us to govern ourselves, to control ourselves, to sustain ourselves according to the Ten Commandments of God." </ref>  Like Jefferson, Madison favored [[separation of church and state]].<ref>[http://www.helium.com/items/501599-the-case-for-separation-of-church-and-state The case for separation of church and state by Michelle Mueller]</ref>

:"Religion is the basis and Foundation of Government.... We have staked the whole future of American civilization, not upon the power of government, far from it. We have staked the future of all of our political institutions upon the capacity of mankind for self government; upon the capacity of each and all of us to govern ourselves, to control ourselves, to sustain ourselves according to the Ten Commandments of God."</ref>  Like Jefferson, Madison favored [[separation of church and state]].<ref>[http://www.helium.com/items/501599-the-case-for-separation-of-church-and-state The case for separation of church and state by Michelle Mueller]</ref>

Decades later, long after the [[Constitution]] was ratified, he wrote letters reflecting less of an embrace of religion.  The letters may have been written with the opinions of the recipients in mind:

Decades later, long after the [[Constitution]] was ratified, he wrote letters reflecting less of an embrace of religion.  The letters may have been written with the opinions of the recipients in mind:

====Political history====

====Political history====

* Adams, Henry. ''History of the United States during the [First and Second] Administrations of James Madison'' (1890-91; Library of America, 1986).

* Adams, Henry. ''History of the United States during the [First and Second] Administrations of James Madison'' (1890–91; Library of America, 1986).

** Wills, Garry. ''Henry Adams and the Making of America'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2005). a close reading of Adams.

** Wills, Garry. ''Henry Adams and the Making of America'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2005). a close reading of Adams.

* Banning, Lance. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1978)

* Banning, Lance. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1978)

<references/>

<references/>

==External Links==

==External links==

* [https://librivox.org/author/1973 Works by James Madison - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

* [https://librivox.org/author/1973 Works by James Madison - text and free audio] - [[LibriVox]]

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[[Category:Enlightenment]]

[[Category:Enlightenment]]

[[Category:War of 1812]]

[[Category:War of 1812]]

[[category:Religion and Politics]]

[[Category:Religion and Politics]]