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Reconstruction historiography (view source)

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The scholarly interpretation or '''historiography of [[Reconstruction]]''' has swung back and forth several times. Nearly all historians, however, have concluded it was a failure. <ref>McPherson 1965</ref> Northern historians first took an approach of how the Civil War and Reconstruction preserved the Union and destroyed slavery. After 1900 Southern historians emphasized the corruption that spoiled whatever good there was, and emphasized the blacks werepawns in the hands of [[Carpetbaggers]]. In recent years historians have adopted a [[Neoabolitionist]] pro-black perspective, that sees the failure in not fully guaranteeing genuine freedom and civil rights for blacks.

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The scholarly interpretation or '''historiography of [[Reconstruction]]''' has swung back and forth several times. Nearly all historians, however, have concluded it was a failure.<ref>McPherson 1965</ref> Northern historians first took an approach of how the Civil War and Reconstruction preserved the Union and destroyed slavery. After 1900 Southern historians emphasized the corruption that spoiled whatever good there was, and emphasized the blacks werepawns in the hands of [[Carpetbaggers]]. In recent years historians have adopted a [[Neoabolitionist]] pro-black perspective, that sees the failure in not fully guaranteeing genuine freedom and civil rights for blacks.

==1865-1890==

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In the 1865-75 period, most writers took the view that the ex-Confederates were traitors and Johnson was their ally who threatened to undo the Union's Constitutional achievements. In the 1870s and 1880s many writers argued that Johnson and his allies were not traitors but blundered badly in rejecting the 14th Amendment and setting the stage for Radical Reconstruction. <ref> Fletcher M. Green, "Walter Lynwood Fleming: Historian of Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 2, No. 4. (Nov., 1936), pp. 497-521. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2192035 in JSTOR]</ref>

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In the 1865-75 period, most writers took the view that the ex-Confederates were traitors and Johnson was their ally who threatened to undo the Union's Constitutional achievements. In the 1870s and 1880s many writers argued that Johnson and his allies were not traitors but blundered badly in rejecting the 14th Amendment and setting the stage for Radical Reconstruction.<ref>Fletcher M. Green, "Walter Lynwood Fleming: Historian of Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 2, No. 4. (Nov., 1936), pp. 497-521. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2192035 in JSTOR]</ref>

==Black views==

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Among black scholars [[Booker T. Washington]], who grew up in West Virginia during Reconstruction, concluded that, "the Reconstruction experiment in racial democracy failed because it began at the wrong end, emphasizing political means and civil rights acts rather than economic means and self-determination."<ref>Louis R. Harlan, ''Booker T. Washington in Perspective'' (1988) p. 164; A. A. Taylor, "Historians of the Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Negro History'' Vol. 23, No. 1. (Jan., 1938), pp. 16-34 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2714704 in JSTOR]. </ref> His solution was to concentrate on building the economic infrastructure of the black community.

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Among black scholars [[Booker T. Washington]], who grew up in West Virginia during Reconstruction, concluded that, "the Reconstruction experiment in racial democracy failed because it began at the wrong end, emphasizing political means and civil rights acts rather than economic means and self-determination."<ref>Louis R. Harlan, ''Booker T. Washington in Perspective'' (1988) p. 164; A. A. Taylor, "Historians of the Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Negro History'' Vol. 23, No. 1. (Jan., 1938), pp. 16-34 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2714704 in JSTOR].</ref> His solution was to concentrate on building the economic infrastructure of the black community.

==Southern whites: popular white==

In popular literature two novels by Thomas Dixon—''The Clansman'' and ''The Leopard's Spots: A Romance of the White Man's Burden — 1865–1900''—romanticized white resistance to Northern/black coercion, hailing vigilante action by the Ku Klux Klan. Other authors romanticized the benevolence of slavery and the happy world of the antebellum plantation. These sentiments were expressed on the screen in [[D.W. Griffith]]'s anti-Republican 1915 movie ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.

==Dunning School==

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The [[Dunning School]] of scholars based at the history department of Columbia University analyzed Reconstruction as a failure, at least after 1866, for quite different reasons. They claimed that it took freedoms and rights from qualified whites and gave them to unqualified blacks who were being duped by corrupt carpetbaggers and scalawags. As one scholar notes, "Reconstruction was a battle between two extremes: the Democrats, as the group which included the vast majority of the whites, standing for decent government and racial supremacy, versus the Republicans, the Negroes, alien carpetbaggers, and renegade scalawags, standing for dishonest government and alien ideals. These historians wrote literally in terms of white and black."<ref> Williams 1946 p. 473; Green (1936).</ref>

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The [[Dunning School]] of scholars based at the history department of Columbia University analyzed Reconstruction as a failure, at least after 1866, for quite different reasons. They claimed that it took freedoms and rights from qualified whites and gave them to unqualified blacks who were being duped by corrupt carpetbaggers and scalawags. As one scholar notes, "Reconstruction was a battle between two extremes: the Democrats, as the group which included the vast majority of the whites, standing for decent government and racial supremacy, versus the Republicans, the Negroes, alien carpetbaggers, and renegade scalawags, standing for dishonest government and alien ideals. These historians wrote literally in terms of white and black."<ref>Williams 1946 p. 473; Green (1936).</ref>

==Revisionism==

In the 1930s, "revisionism" became popular among scholars. As disciples of [[Charles A. Beard]], revisionists focused on economics, downplaying politics and constitutional issues. They argued that the Radical rhetoric of equal rights was mostly a smokescreen hiding the true motivation of Reconstruction's real backers. While conceding that a few men like Stevens and Sumner were thoroughly idealistic, Howard Beale argued Reconstruction was primarily a successful attempt by financiers, railroad builders and industrialists in the Northeast, using the Republican Party, to control the national government for its own selfish economic ends. Those ends were to continue the wartime high protective tariff, the new network of national banks, and to guarantee a "sound" currency. To succeed the business class had to remove the old ruling agrarian class of Southern planters and Midwestern farmers. This it did by inaugurating Reconstruction, which made the South Republican, and by selling its policies to the voters wrapped up in such attractive vote-getting packages as northern patriotism or the bloody shirt. Historian William Hesseltine added the point that the Northeastern businessmen wanted to control the South economically, which they did through ownership of the railroads.<ref>Williams 1946 p470</ref> However, historians in the 1950s and 1960s refuted Beale's economic causation by demonstrating that Northern businessmen were widely divergent on monetary or tariff policy, and seldom paid attention to Reconstruction issues.<ref>Foner 1982; Montgomery, ''vii–ix'')</ref>

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* Foner, Eric. ''Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction.''2005. 268 pp. , short well-illustrated popular survey, chiefly on Reconstruction

* Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877'' (1988) ISBN 0-06-015851-4. Pulitzer-prize winning history and most detailed synthesis of original and previous scholarship.

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* Foner, Eric. "Reconstruction Revisited" in ''Reviews in American History'', Vol. 10, No. 4, ''The Promise of American History: Progress and Prospects'' (Dec., 1982), pp. ~~82-100~~, review of the historiography, online in Project MUSE

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* Foner, Eric. "Reconstruction Revisited" in ''Reviews in American History'', Vol. 10, No. 4, ''The Promise of American History: Progress and Prospects'' (Dec., 1982), pp. 82–100, review of the historiography, online in Project MUSE

* Ford, Lacy K., ed. ''A Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction.'' Blackwell, 2005. 518 pp.

* Franklin, John Hop]. ''Reconstruction after the Civil War'' (1961), , 280 pages. . Short survey by leading black scholar.

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===National politics and Constitutional issues===

* Belz, Herman. ''Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era'' (1978) pro-moderate, by leading conservative historian. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103250477 online edition]

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* Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era,'' (1998) 268 pgs. by leading conservative historian[http://www.questia.com/library/book/abraham-lincoln-constitutionalism-and-equal-rights-in-the-civil-war-era-by-herman-belz.jsp online edition]

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* Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era,'' (1998) 268 pgs. by leading conservative historian [http://www.questia.com/library/book/abraham-lincoln-constitutionalism-and-equal-rights-in-the-civil-war-era-by-herman-belz.jsp online edition]

* Belz, Herman. ''A New Birth of Freedom: The Republican Party and Freedman's Rights, 1861-1866'' (2000) pro-moderate; by leading conservative historian

* Benedict, Michael Les. ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1999), pro-Radical. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104078634 online edition]

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* Calhoun, Charles W. ''Conceiving a New Republic: The Republican Party and the Southern Question, 1869-1900.'' (2006). 347 pp.

* Cox, LaWanda C. ''Politics, principle, and prejudice, 1865-1866: dilemma of Reconstruction America'' (1963) [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00364 online in ACLS E-books]

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* Dunning, William A. "The Constitution of the United States in Reconstruction" in ''Political Science Quarterly'' Vol. 2, No. 4 (Dec., 1887), pp. ~~558-602~~ [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2139470 in JSTOR], by leading conservative historian

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* Dunning, William A. "The Constitution of the United States in Reconstruction" in ''Political Science Quarterly'' Vol. 2, No. 4 (Dec., 1887), pp. 558–602 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2139470 in JSTOR], by leading conservative historian

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* Dunning, William A. "Military Government in the South During Reconstruction" ''Political Science Quarterly'' Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep., 1897), pp. ~~381-406~~ [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2139663 in JSTOR], by leading conservative historian

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* Dunning, William A. "Military Government in the South During Reconstruction" ''Political Science Quarterly'' Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep., 1897), pp. 381–406 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2139663 in JSTOR], by leading conservative historian

* Dunning, William A. ''Essays On The Civil War And Reconstruction And Related Topics'' (1897)

[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5DwOAAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Dunning+%22The+Constitution+of+the+United+States+&ots=F4oaqTZ-ow&sig=9cpmBMeZm-Y818Rq6QWxtTH12vo full text online], by leading conservative historian

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* McPherson, James M. ''The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP'' (1975) (ISBN 0-691-10039-X)

* Mantell, Martin E. ''Johnson, Grant and the Politics of Reconstruction.'' (1973). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89815306 online edition]

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* Nicolay, John and John Hay, "First Plans for Emancipation," ''Century'' (Dec 1888): pp ~~276-94~~; [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABP2287-0037-66 Online] Authors were Lincoln's top aides in the White House

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* Nicolay, John and John Hay, "First Plans for Emancipation," ''Century'' (Dec 1888): pp 276–94; [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABP2287-0037-66 Online] Authors were Lincoln's top aides in the White House

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** Nicolay, John and John Hay, "The Wade-Davis Manifesto" ''Century'' (July 1889): pp ~~414-21~~ [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABP2287-0038-89 online version]

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** Nicolay, John and John Hay, "The Wade-Davis Manifesto" ''Century'' (July 1889): pp 414–21 [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABP2287-0038-89 online version]

* Summers, Mark Wahlgren. ''The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865-1878'' (1994)

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* Simpson, Brooks D. ''Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction, 1861-1868'' (1991).

* Stryker, Lloyd Paul; ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' 1929. pro-Johnson [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=295401 online edition]

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* Trefousse, Hans L. ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989), hostile to Johnson[http://www.questia.com/library/book/andrew-johnson-a-biography-by-hans-l-trefousse.jsp online edition]

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* Trefousse, Hans L. ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989), hostile to Johnson [http://www.questia.com/library/book/andrew-johnson-a-biography-by-hans-l-trefousse.jsp online edition]

* Trefousse, Hans L. ''Thaddeus Stevens: Nineteenth-Century Egalitarian'' (1997)

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* Winston, Robert W. ''Andrew Johnson: Plebeian and Patriot.'' (1928), favorable[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3971949 online edition]

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* Winston, Robert W. ''Andrew Johnson: Plebeian and Patriot.'' (1928), favorable [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3971949 online edition]

===South: regional, state & local studies===

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* Coulter, E. Merton. ''The South During Reconstruction, 1865-1877'' (1947). [[Dunning School]]. region-wide history

* DeBlack, Thomas A. ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861-1874.'' U. of Arkansas Pr., 2003. 307 pp.

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* Donald, David H. "The Scalawag in Mississippi Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Southern History'' Vol. 10, No. 4 (Nov., 1944), pp. ~~447-460~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28194411%2910%3A4%3C447%3ATSIMR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 JSTOR]

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* Donald, David H. "The Scalawag in Mississippi Reconstruction," ''The Journal of Southern History'' Vol. 10, No. 4 (Nov., 1944), pp. 447–460 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28194411%2910%3A4%3C447%3ATSIMR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 JSTOR]

* Ebner, David, and Larry Langman, eds. ''Hollywood's Image of the South: A Century of Southern Films'' (2001). Ch 9-10 on Reconstruction and KKK.

* Fields, Barbara Jean, ''Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland'' (1985)

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* Rose, Willie Lee . ''Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment'' (1967) Blacks given land in 1863 in coastal South Carolina [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00800 online in ACLS E-books]

* Rubin, Hyman III. ''South Carolina Scalawags'' (2006)

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* Russ, Jr., William A. "The Negro and White Disfranchisement During Radical Reconstruction" ''The Journal of Negro History'' Vol. 19, No. 2 (Apr., 1934), pp. ~~171-192~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2992%28193404%2919%3A2%3C171%3ATNAWDD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 JSTOR]

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* Russ, Jr., William A. "The Negro and White Disfranchisement During Radical Reconstruction" ''The Journal of Negro History'' Vol. 19, No. 2 (Apr., 1934), pp. 171–192 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2992%28193404%2919%3A2%3C171%3ATNAWDD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 JSTOR]

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* Russ, Jr., William A. "Registration and Disfranchisement Under Radical Reconstruction," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' Vol. 21, No. 2 (Sep., 1934), pp. ~~163-180~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28193409%2921%3A2%3C163%3ARADURR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 JSTOR]

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* Russ, Jr., William A. "Registration and Disfranchisement Under Radical Reconstruction," ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' Vol. 21, No. 2 (Sep., 1934), pp. 163–180 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28193409%2921%3A2%3C163%3ARADURR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 JSTOR]

* Simkins, Francis Butler, and Robert Hilliard Woody. ''South Carolina during Reconstruction'' (1932), revisionist (Beardian) school

* Smallwood, James M., Barry A. Crouch, and Larry Peacock, ''Murder and Mayhem: The War of Reconstruction in Texas.'' Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 182 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Murder-Mayhem-Reconstruction-Texas-Rayburn/dp/1585442801/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1193954945&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

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* Trelease, Allen W. ''White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction'', (1971, 1995). detailed treatment of the Klan, and similar groups.

* Wiener, Jonathan M. ''Social Origins of the New South; Alabama, 1860-1885''. (1978) new social history

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* Wharton, V. L. "The Race Issue in the Overthrow of Reconstruction in Mississippi," ''Phylon'' (1940-1956) Vol. 2, No. 4 (4th Qtr., 1941), pp. ~~362-370~~ in [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0885-6818%28194134%292%3A4%3C362%3ATRIITO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X JSTOR]

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* Wharton, V. L. "The Race Issue in the Overthrow of Reconstruction in Mississippi," ''Phylon'' (1940-1956) Vol. 2, No. 4 (4th Qtr., 1941), pp. 362–370 in [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0885-6818%28194134%292%3A4%3C362%3ATRIITO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X JSTOR]

*Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk. ''The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865-1881'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24267664 online edition]

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* Ash, Stephen V. ''A Year in the South: Four Lives in 1865.'' (2002). 289 pp.

* Censer, Jane Turner. ''The Reconstruction of White Southern Womanhood, 1865-1895.'' (2003). 316 pp.

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* Moore, A. B. "Railroad Building in Alabama During the Reconstruction Period" ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 1, No. 4. (Nov., 1935), pp. ~~421-441~~. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28193511%291%3A4%3C421%3ARBIADT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X JSTOR]

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* Moore, A. B. "Railroad Building in Alabama During the Reconstruction Period" ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 1, No. 4. (Nov., 1935), pp. 421–441. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642%28193511%291%3A4%3C421%3ARBIADT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X JSTOR]

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* Morrow, Ralph E. "Northern Methodism in the South during Reconstruction." ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 41, No. 2. (Sep., 1954), pp. ~~197-218~~. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195409%2941%3A2%3C197%3ANMITSD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O in JSTOR]

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* Morrow, Ralph E. "Northern Methodism in the South during Reconstruction." ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,'' Vol. 41, No. 2. (Sep., 1954), pp. 197–218. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28195409%2941%3A2%3C197%3ANMITSD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O in JSTOR]

* Ransom, Roger L. and Sutch, Richard. ''One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation.'' (2d ed. (original publ. 1977). 2001-. 458 pp.

* Saloutos, Theodore. "Southern Agriculture and the Problems of Readjustment: 1865-1877," ''Agricultural history'' (April, 1956) Vol 30#2 58-76 [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;sid=ee7dd0a5a57a1fa6275bd1731e11c7b9;q1=Saloutos%2C%20Theodore%3A%20Southern%20Agriculture;rgn=full%20text;view=image;seq=0001;idno=5077685_107_002 online edition]

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* Williams, Heather Andrea. ''Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom'' U (2006)

* Wilson, Kirt H. ''The Reconstruction Desegregation Debate: The Politics of Equality and the Rhetoric of Place, 1870-1875.'' (2002). 276 pp.

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* R. H. Woody, "The Labor and Immigration Problem of South Carolina during Reconstruction" ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' Vol. 18, No. 2 (Sep., 1931), pp. ~~195-212~~ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28193109%2918%3A2%3C195%3ATLAIPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A JSTOR]

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* R. H. Woody, "The Labor and Immigration Problem of South Carolina during Reconstruction" ''The Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' Vol. 18, No. 2 (Sep., 1931), pp. 195–212 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0161-391X%28193109%2918%3A2%3C195%3ATLAIPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A JSTOR]

==Primary Sources==

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=== Primary sources ===

* Berlin, Ira, ed. ''Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War'' (1995)

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* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/freedmen/freedmen.html ''Minutes of the Freedmen's Convention, Held in the City of Raleigh, [North Carolina] ...October, 1866'']

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* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/freedmen/freedmen.html ''Minutes of the Freedmen's Convention, Held in the City of Raleigh, [North Carolina] ...October, 1866'']

* [http://freedmensbureau.com/ Freedmen's Bureau Online]

* [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/aap:@field(SUBJ+@band(Freedmen+)) Reports and Speeches]

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* Crouch, Barry. ''The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans'' (1992)

* Crouch; Barry A. "The 'Chords of Love': Legalizing Black Marital and Family Rights in Postwar Texas" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 79, 1994

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* Durrill, Wayne K. "Political Legitimacy and Local Courts: 'Politicks at Such a Rage' in a Southern Community during Reconstruction" in ''Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 70 #3, 2004 pp ~~577-617~~

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* Durrill, Wayne K. "Political Legitimacy and Local Courts: 'Politicks at Such a Rage' in a Southern Community during Reconstruction" in ''Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 70 #3, 2004 pp 577–617

* Farmer-Kaiser, Mary. "’Are They Not in Some Sorts Vagrants?’ Gender and the Efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau to Combat Vagrancy in the Reconstruction South” ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'' 2004 88(1): 25-49. Issn: 0016-8297

* Faulkner, Carol. ''Women's Radical Reconstruction: The Freedmen's Aid Movement.'' U. of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. 208 pp.

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* Ransom, Roger L. ''Conflict and Compromise''. Cambridge University Press. 1989. economic history

* Oubre, Claude F. ''Forty Acres and a Mule''. Louisiana State University Press. Baton Rouge and London. 1978.

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* Rodrigue, John C. "Labor Militancy and Black Grassroots Political Mobilization in the Louisiana Sugar Region, 1865-1868" in ''Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 67 #1, 2001 pp ~~115-45~~

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* Rodrigue, John C. "Labor Militancy and Black Grassroots Political Mobilization in the Louisiana Sugar Region, 1865-1868" in ''Journal of Southern History'', Vol. 67 #1, 2001 pp 115–45

* Schwalm, Leslie A. "'Sweet Dreams of Freedom': Freedwomen's Reconstruction of Life and Labor in Lowcountry South Carolina'' ''Journal of Women's History'', Vol. 9 #1, 1997 pp 9-32

* Smith, Solomon K. "The Freedmen's Bureau in Shreveport: the Struggle for Control of the Red River District" ''Louisiana History'' 2000 41(4): 435-465. Issn: 0024-6816

* Williamson, Joel. ''After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861-1877'' 1965.

* [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/FF/ncf1.html Freedmen's Bureau in Texas]

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* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/summer_1997_freedmens_bureau_records.html Elaine C. Everly, "Freedmen's Bureau Records: An Overview," ''Prologue'', Summer 1997]

*[http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-634&sug=y Georgia: Freedmen's Education during Reconstruction]

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* Hoogenboom, Ari. ''The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes'' (1988)

* King, Ronald F. "A Most Corrupt Election: Louisiana in 1876." ''Studies in American Political Development'' 2001 15(2): 123-137. Issn: 0898-588x Fulltext: online from Cambridge Journals

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*Peskin, Allan. "Was There a Compromise of 1877?" ''Journal of American History'' (1973) v 60#1, pp ~~63-75~~ in JSTOR; Admits that Woodward's interpretation is almost universally accepted but since not all terms were met it should not be called a compromise.

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*Peskin, Allan. "Was There a Compromise of 1877?" ''Journal of American History'' (1973) v 60#1, pp 63–75 in JSTOR; Admits that Woodward's interpretation is almost universally accepted but since not all terms were met it should not be called a compromise.

* McPherson, James M. "Coercion or Conciliation? Abolitionists Debate President Hayes's Southern Policy." ''New England Quarterly'' 1966 39(4): 474-497. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/363419 in Jstor]. Argues Hayes had been convinced since 1875 that Grant's approach toward the South had to be abandoned and hoped to substitute conciliation for coercion, believing that the good will of Southern upper class whites would provide better protection for Blacks than the hated Federal troops. A majority of abolitionists disagreed, but about 36% of abolitionists supported Hayes, thereby causing a decided division in their ranks.

* Polakoff, Keith Ian. ''The Politics of Inertia: The Election of 1876 and the End of Reconstruction.'' (1973). Argues the Compromise reflected decentralized parties and weak national leaders

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* Vazzano, Frank P. "President Hayes, Congress and the Appropriations Riders Vetoes." ''Congress & the Presidency'' 1993 20(1): 25-37. Issn: 0734-3469 Fulltext: at Ebsco. Shows Hayes vetoed Democratic bills intended to remove the last remaining Reconstruction-era restraints: federal marshals at Southern polling places and loyalty oaths for jurors.

* Woodward, C. Vann ''Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction'' (1951), emphasizes the role of railroads.

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* Woodward, C. Vann "Yes, There Was a Compromise of 1877" ''Journal of American History'' (1973) v 60#2, pp ~~215-23~~. in JSTOR. Rebuts Peskin; the main terms were indeed met.

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* Woodward, C. Vann "Yes, There Was a Compromise of 1877" ''Journal of American History'' (1973) v 60#2, pp 215–23. in JSTOR. Rebuts Peskin; the main terms were indeed met.

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====~~references~~====

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====References====

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[[~~category~~:Black History]]

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[[Category:Historians]]

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Reconstruction historiography (view source)

Revision as of 04:08, June 27, 2016

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