Changes

==Courts reverse==

==Courts reverse==

After 1945, the [[Civil Rights]] movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow. The Supreme Court declared legal, or ''de jure'', public school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in [[Brown vs. Board of Education]]. The federal courts then systematically ended Jim Crow in practice by the 1970s.<ref> Michael J. Klarman, ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The  Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) </ref>   

After 1945, the [[Civil Rights]] movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow. The Supreme Court declared legal, or ''de jure'', public school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in [[Brown vs. Board of Education]]. The federal courts then systematically ended Jim Crow in practice by the 1970s.<ref>Michael J. Klarman, ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The  Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006)</ref>   

President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], building a coalition of [[liberal]] [[Democrat]]s and [[conservative]] [[Republicans]] from the north, pushed [[Congress]] to pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], which immediately ended Jim Crow laws that segregated restaurants, hotels and theatres; these facilities (with rare exceptions) immediately dropped racial segregation. In 1965 the federal [[Voting Rights Act]] ended discrimination in voting for all federal, state and local elections.

President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], building a coalition of [[liberal]] [[Democrat]]s and [[conservative]] [[Republicans]] from the north, pushed [[Congress]] to pass the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], which immediately ended Jim Crow laws that segregated restaurants, hotels and theatres; these facilities (with rare exceptions) immediately dropped racial segregation. In 1965 the federal [[Voting Rights Act]] ended discrimination in voting for all federal, state and local elections.

==Origins==

==Origins==

In the first stage of "Presidential Reconstruction," from 1865-66, the all-white southern legislatures abolished laws regarding slavery but passed the black codes, which gave new rights to the freedmen but fewer than whites possessed. The codes were not actually enforced but they caused a sharp reaction in the North. The [[Radical Republicans]] passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which gave freedmen legal rights (but not the right to vote). The country passed the  14th and 15th Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]] by 1870, guaranteeing civil rights and the right to vote. The southern states came under Republican control&mdash; a party comprising the Freedmen, white Southerners ("[[Scalawags]]") and migrants from the North ([Carpetbaggers]]. The [[Ku Klux Klan]] and related groups reacted violently, but they were suppressed by President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] using the federal courts and troops. By 1877, the conservatives and Democrats, forming a Redeemer coalition, ousted all the Republican governments. From 1877 until the 1970s, the Southern Democrats largely controlled every southern state.

In the first stage of "Presidential Reconstruction," from 1865–66, the all-white southern legislatures abolished laws regarding slavery but passed the black codes, which gave new rights to the freedmen but fewer than whites possessed. The codes were not actually enforced but they caused a sharp reaction in the North. The [[Radical Republicans]] passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which gave freedmen legal rights (but not the right to vote). The country passed the  14th and 15th Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]] by 1870, guaranteeing civil rights and the right to vote. The southern states came under Republican control&mdash; a party comprising the Freedmen, white Southerners ("[[Scalawags]]") and migrants from the North ([[Carpetbaggers]]. The [[Ku Klux Klan]] and related groups reacted violently, but they were suppressed by President [[Ulysses S. Grant]] using the federal courts and troops. By 1877, the conservatives and Democrats, forming a Redeemer coalition, ousted all the Republican governments. From 1877 until the 1970s, the Southern Democrats largely controlled every southern state.

===Redeemers===

===Redeemers===

Many of the discriminatory Jim Crow laws were enacted to support [[racial segregation]] in everyday life. They required black and white people to use separate water fountains, public schools, public bath houses, restaurants, public libraries, buses and rail cars&mdash;even without legal segregation.

Many of the discriminatory Jim Crow laws were enacted to support [[racial segregation]] in everyday life. They required black and white people to use separate water fountains, public schools, public bath houses, restaurants, public libraries, buses and rail cars&mdash;even without legal segregation.

In the south, before the resort to widespread legal segregation around 1890, ''de facto'' segregation had replaced exclusion in southern race relations. The integration stage was largely bypassed. Radical measures helped to institutionalize this shift to segregation. Both white Republicans and Redeemers came to embrace the new segregation policies, though often for different reasons. Even the attitudes of blacks helped to assure the shift. Lack of white support, black self-respect, economic pressures, tactical emphasis on securing better "separate but equal" facilities, and the development of group identity all shaped blacks' attitudes.<ref> Howard N. Rabinowitz, "From Exclusion To Segregation: Southern Race Relations, 1865-1890." ''Journal of American History 1976'' 63(2): 325-350. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899640  in JSTOR]</ref>  

In the south, before the resort to widespread legal segregation around 1890, ''de facto'' segregation had replaced exclusion in southern race relations. The integration stage was largely bypassed. Radical measures helped to institutionalize this shift to segregation. Both white Republicans and Redeemers came to embrace the new segregation policies, though often for different reasons. Even the attitudes of blacks helped to assure the shift. Lack of white support, black self-respect, economic pressures, tactical emphasis on securing better "separate but equal" facilities, and the development of group identity all shaped blacks' attitudes.<ref>Howard N. Rabinowitz, "From Exclusion To Segregation: Southern Race Relations, 1865-1890." ''Journal of American History 1976'' 63(2): 325-350. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1899640  in JSTOR]</ref>  

Virginia Governor [[James L. Kemper]] (1874-77) and like-minded conservatives sought interracial peace and implemented racial policies which were less anti-Negro and which gave fuller recognition than historians have conceded. The Virginia Redeemers attempted to shape race relations to conform to what C. Vann Woodward has defined as the conservative philosophy. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers deserve to rank in history alongside the Wade Hamptons and other proponents of the conservative philosophy.<ref> Robert R. Jones, "James L. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers Face the Race Question: A Reconsideration." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1972 38(3): 393-414. 0022-4642 </ref>

Virginia Governor [[James L. Kemper]] (1874–77) and like-minded conservatives sought interracial peace and implemented racial policies which were less anti-Negro and which gave fuller recognition than historians have conceded. The Virginia Redeemers attempted to shape race relations to conform to what C. Vann Woodward has defined as the conservative philosophy. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers deserve to rank in history alongside the Wade Hamptons and other proponents of the conservative philosophy.<ref>Robert R. Jones, "James L. Kemper and the Virginia Redeemers Face the Race Question: A Reconsideration." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1972 38(3): 393-414. 0022-4642</ref>

The Redeemer system of Jim Crow meant that for the first time black teachers and principals controlled black education. Rabinowitz (1974) studies the transformation from white to black teachers in southern schools in the post-Civil War years, using the experiences of five southern cities to provide a cross-section: Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh, North Carolina; Nashville, Tennessee; Montgomery, Alabama; and Richmond, Virginia. Among the problems the Redeemers confronted were such matters as the removal of northern missionary ties and teachers in order to reassert southern control of the school system, the black demand for black teachers which was often accepted since it meant cheaper teachers, and the resultant black demand for equal salary for equal work, a demand usually denied. African Americans tried to obtain better quality instruction for their children, more administrative positions, and positions on the school board, but were usually unsuccessful. Ironically, since some schools became entirely black, insistence upon black instructors made it easier for the whites to discriminate.<ref> Howard N. Rabinowitz, "Half a Loaf: The Shift from White to Black Teachers in the Negro Schools of the Urban South, 1865-1890." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1974 40(4):565-594. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206355  in JSTOR] </ref>

The Redeemer system of Jim Crow meant that for the first time black teachers and principals controlled black education. Rabinowitz (1974) studies the transformation from white to black teachers in southern schools in the post-Civil War years, using the experiences of five southern cities to provide a cross-section: Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh, North Carolina; Nashville, Tennessee; Montgomery, Alabama; and Richmond, Virginia. Among the problems the Redeemers confronted were such matters as the removal of northern missionary ties and teachers in order to reassert southern control of the school system, the black demand for black teachers which was often accepted since it meant cheaper teachers, and the resultant black demand for equal salary for equal work, a demand usually denied. African Americans tried to obtain better quality instruction for their children, more administrative positions, and positions on the school board, but were usually unsuccessful. Ironically, since some schools became entirely black, insistence upon black instructors made it easier for the whites to discriminate.<ref>Howard N. Rabinowitz, "Half a Loaf: The Shift from White to Black Teachers in the Negro Schools of the Urban South, 1865-1890." ''Journal of Southern History'' 1974 40(4):565-594. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206355  in JSTOR]</ref>

===Voting disfranchisement===

===Voting disfranchisement===

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white," "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed white and black ancestry). The law already had provided that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites prior to 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to the repeal of the law. They had Homer Plessy purchase a first-class railroad ticket. Plessy was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. He refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States.  They lost in 1896, and ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' validated the segregation laws as constitutional.   

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white," "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed white and black ancestry). The law already had provided that blacks could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with whites prior to 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to the repeal of the law. They had Homer Plessy purchase a first-class railroad ticket. Plessy was directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. He refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States.  They lost in 1896, and ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' validated the segregation laws as constitutional.   

Jim Crow was supported politically by nearly all white politicians.  To do otherwise was political death. The southern states formed a "Solid South" -- that is the region voted for (almost) all Democratic candidates at the state level, and was a powerful bloc in presidential elections.<ref> Republicans [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1928 and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and 1956 were the only Republicans to win notable support in the white South between 1876 and 1960.</ref>  The Democrats dominated all aspects of local, state, and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, into the 1970s and 1980s. In 1956, nearly all Southern Congressmen and Senators signed the "Southern Manifesto," condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education.''

Jim Crow was supported politically by nearly all white politicians.  To do otherwise was political death. The southern states formed a "Solid South"—that is the region voted for (almost) all Democratic candidates at the state level, and was a powerful bloc in presidential elections.<ref>Republicans [[Herbert Hoover]] in 1928 and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1952 and 1956 were the only Republicans to win notable support in the white South between 1876 and 1960.</ref>  The Democrats dominated all aspects of local, state, and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, into the 1970s and 1980s. In 1956, nearly all Southern Congressmen and Senators signed the "Southern Manifesto," condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in ''Brown v. Board of Education.''

===Black opposition===

===Black opposition===

[[Booker T. Washington]] publicly accepted Jim Crow, but secretly financed numerous cases in federal court that chipped away at the system.  In general, the black community in the South quietly accepted the system and did not cause trouble. In the North the black political leadership routinely denounced Jim Crow in the South (where it was part of state law) and ignored informal Jim Crow in the North.

[[Booker T. Washington]] publicly accepted Jim Crow, but secretly financed numerous cases in federal court that chipped away at the system.  In general, the black community in the South quietly accepted the system and did not cause trouble. In the North the black political leadership routinely denounced Jim Crow in the South (where it was part of state law) and ignored informal Jim Crow in the North.

   

   

When black soldiers returning from World War II recoiled at the second class Jim Crow citizenship in the South, the movement for [[Civil Rights]] was renewed. The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group independent of the NAACP)&mdash;and its lawyer [[Thurgood Marshall]]&mdash;brought the landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education|Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]'',  before the Supreme Court.<ref>The main NAACP is often assumed to be involved in the case.  Not true; the totally separate NAACP Legal Defense Committee handled it all. </ref> In 1954, the court under [[Earl Warren]] unanimously overturned the 1896 Plessy decision in its ruling; Thurgood Marshall later became the first black Supreme Court Justice.

When black soldiers returning from World War II recoiled at the second class Jim Crow citizenship in the South, the movement for [[Civil Rights]] was renewed. The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group independent of the NAACP)&mdash;and its lawyer [[Thurgood Marshall]]&mdash;brought the landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education|Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka]]'',  before the Supreme Court.<ref>The main NAACP is often assumed to be involved in the case.  Not true; the totally separate NAACP Legal Defense Committee handled it all.</ref> In 1954, the court under [[Earl Warren]] unanimously overturned the 1896 Plessy decision in its ruling; Thurgood Marshall later became the first black Supreme Court Justice.

===Social mobility for blacks===

===Social mobility for blacks===

===Informal segregation===

===Informal segregation===

Most clubs and labior unions in the North excluded blacks--not on the basis of state law but on the basis of their own rules and traditions.  Blacks could not buy houses in certain neighborhoods, nor join labor unions that controlled access to many skilled trades.   

Most clubs and labior unions in the North excluded blacks—not on the basis of state law but on the basis of their own rules and traditions.  Blacks could not buy houses in certain neighborhoods, nor join labor unions that controlled access to many skilled trades.   

The Supreme Court undercut private discrimination in ''Shelley v. Kraemer'' 334 US 1 (1948), in which it held that "restrictive covenants" that barred sale of homes to blacks or Jews or Asians could not be enforced in courts. The restrictive covenants, however, remained in place until 1964.

The Supreme Court undercut private discrimination in ''Shelley v. Kraemer'' 334 US 1 (1948), in which it held that "restrictive covenants" that barred sale of homes to blacks or Jews or Asians could not be enforced in courts. The restrictive covenants, however, remained in place until 1964.

==Origins of imagery==

==Origins of imagery==

The "father of American minstrelsy" was Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice, who, between 1828 and 1831, developed a song-and-dance routine in which he impersonated an old, crippled black slave, dubbed Jim Crow. <ref>http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm</ref>

The "father of American minstrelsy" was Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice, who, between 1828 and 1831, developed a song-and-dance routine in which he impersonated an old, crippled black slave, dubbed Jim Crow.<ref>http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm</ref>

On the eve of the Civil War, the universal image of the silly Jim Crow minstrel character provided one of many stereotypical images of black inferiority that were a fundamental component of white popular culture. By the 1890s, the term had come to mean the separation of blacks from whites and the general customs and laws that subordinated blacks as an inferior people. <ref>http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi</ref>

On the eve of the Civil War, the universal image of the silly Jim Crow minstrel character provided one of many stereotypical images of black inferiority that were a fundamental component of white popular culture. By the 1890s, the term had come to mean the separation of blacks from whites and the general customs and laws that subordinated blacks as an inferior people.<ref>http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi</ref>

==Basic further reading==

==Basic further reading==

* Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama'' (1969)  

* Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama'' (1969)  

* Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Tillman-Reconstruction-Supremacy-Morrison-Southern/dp/0807848395/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613294&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Tillman-Reconstruction-Supremacy-Morrison-Southern/dp/0807848395/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613294&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Kantrowitz, Stephen. "Ben Tillman and Hendrix McLane, Agrarian Rebels: White Manhood, 'The Farmers,' and the Limits of Southern Populism," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 66, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp. 497-524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(200008)66%3A3%3C497%3ABTAHMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]

* Kantrowitz, Stephen. "Ben Tillman and Hendrix McLane, Agrarian Rebels: White Manhood, 'The Farmers,' and the Limits of Southern Populism," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 66, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp.&nbsp;497–524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(200008)66%3A3%3C497%3ABTAHMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]

* Kennedy, Randall. ''Martin Luther King's Constitution: a Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,'' 98 Yale Law Journal 999-1067 (April, 1989) pp 999-1067 [http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/civilrights03.htm online edition without footnotes]; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0044-0094(198904)98%3A6%3C999%3AMLKCAL%3E2.0.CO;2-E complete edition from JSTOR]

* Kennedy, Randall. ''Martin Luther King's Constitution: a Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,'' 98 Yale Law Journal 999-1067 (April, 1989) pp 999–1067 [http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/civilrights03.htm online edition without footnotes]; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0044-0094(198904)98%3A6%3C999%3AMLKCAL%3E2.0.CO;2-E complete edition from JSTOR]

* Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Jim-Crow-Civil-Rights-Struggle/dp/0195310187/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]

* Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Jim-Crow-Civil-Rights-Struggle/dp/0195310187/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]

* Lipsitz, George. "'Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac': White Supremacy, Antiblack Racism, and the New Historicism," ''American Literary History,'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 700-725 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199524)7%3A4%3C700%3A%22LSCWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* Lipsitz, George. "'Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac': White Supremacy, Antiblack Racism, and the New Historicism," ''American Literary History,'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp.&nbsp;700–725 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199524)7%3A4%3C700%3A%22LSCWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]

* Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Trouble-Mind-Black-Southerners-Crow/dp/039452778X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613319&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Trouble-Mind-Black-Southerners-Crow/dp/039452778X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613319&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. '' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Dark-Journey-Black-Mississippians-Crow/dp/025206156X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610311&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. '' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Dark-Journey-Black-Mississippians-Crow/dp/025206156X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610311&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

====Notes====

====Notes====

<references/>

<references/>

[[category:United States History]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[category:Civil Rights]]

[[Category:Civil Rights]]

[[category:Reconstruction]]

[[Category:Reconstruction]]

[[Category:Black History]]

[[Category:Black History]]

[[Category:The South]]

[[Category:The South]]

[[Category:1960s]]

[[Category:1960s]]