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The '''Battle of Lepanto''' was a decisive Christian naval victory on October 7, 1571. A Turkish fleet of about 275 [[galley]]s and other ships under Ali Pasha clashed with a Christian force of about 230 galleys and [[galleass]]es (hybrid oar-powered and wind-driven vessels, much larger than galleys). The Christian fleet was mostly from the nations of [[Spain]] and [[Venice]], and was commanded by Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor [[Charles V]] and half-brother of [[Philip II of Spain]].  

The '''Battle of Lepanto''' was a decisive Christian naval victory on October 7, 1571. A Turkish fleet of about 275 [[galley]]s and other ships under Ali Pasha clashed with a Christian force of about 230 galleys and [[galleass]]es (hybrid oar-powered and wind-driven vessels, much larger than galleys). The Christian fleet was mostly from the nations of [[Spain]] and [[Venice]], and was commanded by Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Emperor [[Charles V]] and half-brother of [[Philip II of Spain]].  

The battle was fought in the Gulf of Patras, off western [[Greece]], and the outcome was a massive victory for the Christian fleet. The Turks suffered about 15,000-20,000 killed, out of 88,000 engaged; Christians lost 7,650 dead and 8,000 injured from a force of 84,000.  Out of 230 Ottoman galleys, 80 were sunk and 130 captured.<ref> The numbers vary widely among the sources.  Most of the oarsmen in the Turkish fleet were enslaved Christians; those who were captured by Don Juan were freed.</ref>

The battle was fought in the Gulf of Patras, off western [[Greece]], and the outcome was a massive victory for the Christian fleet. The Turks suffered about 15,000-20,000 killed, out of 88,000 engaged; Christians lost 7,650 dead and 8,000 injured from a force of 84,000.  Out of 230 Ottoman galleys, 80 were sunk and 130 captured.<ref>The numbers vary widely among the sources.  Most of the oarsmen in the Turkish fleet were enslaved Christians; those who were captured by Don Juan were freed.</ref>

[[Image:Lepanto1.jpg|thumb|330px]]

[[Image:Lepanto1.jpg|thumb|330px]]

==Background==

==Background==

For over a century the Ottoman Empire had tried to expand west and north into Christian areas.<ref> See Andrew C. Hess, "The Battle of Lepanto and its Place in [[Mediterranean]] History." ''Past and Present'' 1972 #57: 53-73</ref> Europe was increasingly fearful.<ref>See Niccolò Capponi, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0306816180/ref=sib_dp_bod_toc?ie=UTF8&p=S00F#reader-link ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) ch. 1]</ref>

For over a century the Ottoman Empire had tried to expand west and north into Christian areas.<ref>See Andrew C. Hess, "The Battle of Lepanto and its Place in [[Mediterranean]] History." ''Past and Present'' 1972 #57: 53-73</ref> Europe was increasingly fearful.<ref>See Niccolò Capponi, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0306816180/ref=sib_dp_bod_toc?ie=UTF8&p=S00F#reader-link ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) ch. 1]</ref>

[[Suleiman I]], the Magnificent (1520-66), captured [[Belgrade]] and [[Rhodes]], but failed in his siege of [[Vienna]] (1529). His son, Selim II (1566-74), was under the sway of Don Joseph Nasi, who persuaded Selim to declare war on Venice for the purpose of taking Cyprus, which at the time was under Venetian control.

[[Suleiman I]], the Magnificent (1520–66), captured [[Belgrade]] and [[Rhodes]], but failed in his siege of [[Vienna]] (1529). His son, Selim II (1566-74), was under the sway of Don Joseph Nasi, who persuaded Selim to declare war on Venice for the purpose of taking Cyprus, which at the time was under Venetian control.

The delicate military balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean finally tipped when the Turks invaded [[Cyprus]], massacred the people of Nicosia, and laid siege to Famagusta, which fell on August 4, 1571. Pope Pius V then unified most of the Christian forces into a '''"Holy League"''' against the Turks. Spain gave command to Don Juan of Austria (1547-1578), the illegitimate half brother of King [[Philip II]] of Spain. The master engineers of Venice provided the fleet with the galleass, a ship able to carry numerous heavy [[Naval guns|guns]].   

The delicate military balance of power in the eastern Mediterranean finally tipped when the Turks invaded [[Cyprus]], massacred the people of Nicosia, and laid siege to Famagusta, which fell on August 4, 1571. Pope Pius V then unified most of the Christian forces into a '''"Holy League"''' against the Turks. Spain gave command to Don Juan of Austria (1547-1578), the illegitimate half brother of King [[Philip II]] of Spain. The master engineers of Venice provided the fleet with the galleass, a ship able to carry numerous heavy [[Naval guns|guns]].   

==Battle==

==Battle==

Spanish novelist [[Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra|Cervantes]], hit three times at Lepanto by gunfire which ruined his left hand ("''...to the power of my right...''"), called it "''the most noble and memorable event that past centuries have seen or future can ever hope to witness''."<ref> Cervantes also has Don Quixote cry out, "''Blessed be those happy ages that were strangers to the dreadful fury of these devilish instruments of artillery, whose inventor I am satisfied is now in hell, receiving the reward of his cursed invention.''" </ref>  

Spanish novelist [[Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra|Cervantes]], hit three times at Lepanto by gunfire which ruined his left hand ("''...to the power of my right...''"), called it "''the most noble and memorable event that past centuries have seen or future can ever hope to witness''."<ref>Cervantes also has Don Quixote cry out, "''Blessed be those happy ages that were strangers to the dreadful fury of these devilish instruments of artillery, whose inventor I am satisfied is now in hell, receiving the reward of his cursed invention.''"</ref>  

Don John split his fleet into three squadrons and took personal command of the center with some sixty galleys. The right and left, under Gianandrea Doria and Admiral Barbarigo respectively, each had about sixty ships. Two reserve flotillas sailed behind them.  

Don John split his fleet into three squadrons and took personal command of the center with some sixty galleys. The right and left, under Gianandrea Doria and Admiral Barbarigo respectively, each had about sixty ships. Two reserve flotillas sailed behind them.  

The battle was the last major battle between oared vessels and was the climax of a century-long advance in oar-propelled warships. (The first battle between wind-driven ships was 17 years later in the engagements known as the [[Spanish Armada]].) In marked the first major use of [[Naval guns|naval artillery]] in the west.  The galleasses used sails, not oars; their high sides suited the harsh ocean conditions and made an ideal gun platforms. The Turks relied too long on oar-driven manpower-intensive galleys, unfit for long voyages or heavy seas. The great European sailing ships with their big guns and huge cargo capacity gave the West a decisive advantage in the conquest and colonization of the globe. The Ottoman Empire, still by far the leading Muslim power, fell further and further behind.  

The battle was the last major battle between oared vessels and was the climax of a century-long advance in oar-propelled warships. (The first battle between wind-driven ships was 17 years later in the engagements known as the [[Spanish Armada]].) In marked the first major use of [[Naval guns|naval artillery]] in the west.  The galleasses used sails, not oars; their high sides suited the harsh ocean conditions and made an ideal gun platforms. The Turks relied too long on oar-driven manpower-intensive galleys, unfit for long voyages or heavy seas. The great European sailing ships with their big guns and huge cargo capacity gave the West a decisive advantage in the conquest and colonization of the globe. The Ottoman Empire, still by far the leading Muslim power, fell further and further behind.  

Financially the Spanish imperial cost was approximately 1,225,000 escudos, of which the main Italian dependencies of Naples, Milan, and Sicily contributed over 440,000. These costs were partly offset by papal grants of income to the Spanish monarchy from religious taxes collected in Spain. With loot, sale of captured vessels, slaves, and the papal grants, the campaign showed a net profit to Spain.  No estimates are available of the financial cost to Venice and the Ottoman Empire.<ref> Geoffrey Parker, and I. A. A. Thompson, "The Battle of Lepanto, 1571: the Costs of Victory." ''Mariner's Mirror'' 1978 64(1): 13-21. Issn: 0025-3359 </ref>

Financially the Spanish imperial cost was approximately 1,225,000 escudos, of which the main Italian dependencies of Naples, Milan, and Sicily contributed over 440,000. These costs were partly offset by papal grants of income to the Spanish monarchy from religious taxes collected in Spain. With loot, sale of captured vessels, slaves, and the papal grants, the campaign showed a net profit to Spain.  No estimates are available of the financial cost to Venice and the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Geoffrey Parker, and I. A. A. Thompson, "The Battle of Lepanto, 1571: the Costs of Victory." ''Mariner's Mirror'' 1978 64(1): 13-21. Issn: 0025-3359</ref>

==Memory==

==Memory==

Pope Pius V (r. 1566-72) in gratitude for the victory inaugurated the feast of the Holy Rosary. He interpreted the Christian victory as the beginning of fulfillment of messianic prophecies current in the popular culture of the day. He specifically believed that the allied Christian princes were destined to reconquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land in a new [[Crusades|crusade]], and that would unite all Christians, including Protestants and Eastern Orthodox. However the Spanish king Philip II was reluctant to pursue that particular messianic quest because he was much more concerned about the Muslims in North Africa.

Pope Pius V (r. 1566-72) in gratitude for the victory inaugurated the feast of the Holy Rosary. He interpreted the Christian victory as the beginning of fulfillment of messianic prophecies current in the popular culture of the day. He specifically believed that the allied Christian princes were destined to reconquer Jerusalem and the Holy Land in a new [[Crusades|crusade]], and that would unite all Christians, including Protestants and Eastern Orthodox. However the Spanish king Philip II was reluctant to pursue that particular messianic quest because he was much more concerned about the Muslims in North Africa.

The English writer G. K. Chesterton (1874-1936) wrote a famous epic poem on ''Lepanto'' in 1911.<ref> See [http://www.amazon.com/Lepanto-G-K-Chesterton/dp/1586170309/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-2 G.K. Chesterton, ''Lepanto'' (2004 edition)]; [http://www.bartleby.com/103/91.html excerpts] </ref>

The English writer G. K. Chesterton (1874-1936) wrote a famous epic poem on ''Lepanto'' in 1911.<ref>See [http://www.amazon.com/Lepanto-G-K-Chesterton/dp/1586170309/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-2 G.K. Chesterton, ''Lepanto'' (2004 edition)]; [http://www.bartleby.com/103/91.html excerpts]</ref>

Recent historians have emphasized that the symbolic and emotional importance outweighed the military or diplomatic results, which were mixed. The Turks rapidly rebuilt their navy in the winter of 1571-72, launching over 150 galleys in 1572; Venice subsequently reached a separate peace in return for the cession of Cyprus and the payment of a large sum in war indemnities.

Recent historians have emphasized that the symbolic and emotional importance outweighed the military or diplomatic results, which were mixed. The Turks rapidly rebuilt their navy in the winter of 1571-72, launching over 150 galleys in 1572; Venice subsequently reached a separate peace in return for the cession of Cyprus and the payment of a large sum in war indemnities.

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* Braudel, Fernand. ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,''  Vol. 2 (1977), pp 225-514; classic from the [[Annales School]]  

* Braudel, Fernand. ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,''  Vol. 2 (1977), pp 225–514; classic from the [[Annales School]]  

* Capponi, Niccolò. ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Victory-West-Christian-muslim-Battle-Lepanto/dp/0306816180/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207050382&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Capponi, Niccolò. ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Victory-West-Christian-muslim-Battle-Lepanto/dp/0306816180/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207050382&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Crowley, Roger. ''Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the Center of the World'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Empires-Sea-Battle-Lepanto-Contest/dp/1400066247/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Crowley, Roger. ''Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the Center of the World'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Empires-Sea-Battle-Lepanto-Contest/dp/1400066247/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

==Advanced Bibliography==

==Advanced Bibliography==

* Beeching, Jack. ''The Galleys at Lepanto'' (1983). 267pp

* Beeching, Jack. ''The Galleys at Lepanto'' (1983). 267pp

* Braudel, Fernand. ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,''  Vol. 2 (1977), pp 225-514; classic from the [[Annales School]]  

* Braudel, Fernand. ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,''  Vol. 2 (1977), pp 225–514; classic from the [[Annales School]]  

* Brummett, Palmira. ''Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery'' (1994)

* Brummett, Palmira. ''Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery'' (1994)

* Capponi, Niccolò. ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Victory-West-Christian-muslim-Battle-Lepanto/dp/0306816180/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207050382&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Capponi, Niccolò. ''The Victory of the West: The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Victory-West-Christian-muslim-Battle-Lepanto/dp/0306816180/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207050382&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Crowley, Roger. ''Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the Center of the World'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Empires-Sea-Battle-Lepanto-Contest/dp/1400066247/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Crowley, Roger. ''Empires of the Sea: The Siege of Malta, the Battle of Lepanto, and the Contest for the Center of the World'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Empires-Sea-Battle-Lepanto-Contest/dp/1400066247/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1230242215&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Fenlon, Iain. "Lepanto and the Arts of Creation." ''History Today'' 45#9 (Sept. 1995) pp 24+., covers the memory and remembrance in Europe [http://www.questia.com/read/5000332378?title=Lepanto%20and%20the%20Arts%20of%20Creation online edition]

* Fenlon, Iain. "Lepanto and the Arts of Creation." ''History Today'' 45#9 (Sept. 1995) pp 24+., covers the memory and remembrance in Europe [http://www.questia.com/read/5000332378?title=Lepanto%20and%20the%20Arts%20of%20Creation online edition]

* Grant, Jonathan. "Rethinking the Ottoman 'Decline': Military Technology Diffusion in the Ottoman Empire, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," ''Journal of World History'' 10#1 Spring 1999, pp. 179-201 in [[Project Muse]]

* Grant, Jonathan. "Rethinking the Ottoman 'Decline': Military Technology Diffusion in the Ottoman Empire, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," ''Journal of World History'' 10#1 Spring 1999, pp.&nbsp;179–201 in [[Project Muse]]

* Greene, Molly. "Beyond the Northern Invasion: the Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century." ''Past & Present'' 2002 (174): 42-71., focus on long-term economic trade patterns. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext: [http://past.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/citation/174/1/42 [[OUP]]]

* Greene, Molly. "Beyond the Northern Invasion: the Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century." ''Past & Present'' 2002 (174): 42-71., focus on long-term economic trade patterns. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext: [http://past.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/citation/174/1/42 [[OUP]]]

* Guilmartin, John Francis, Jr. ''Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century''(1974)  

* Guilmartin, John Francis, Jr. ''Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century''(1974)