Changes

During the reign of [[Peter the Great]] (1689-1725), modernization and European influences spread in Russia. Peter created Western-style military forces, subordinated the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] hierarchy to the tsar, reformed the entire governmental structure, and established the beginnings of a Western-style education system. He moved the capital westward from Moscow to [[St. Petersburg]], his newly-established city on the [[Baltic]]. His introduction of European customs generated nationalistic resentments in society and spawned the philosophical rivalry between "Westernizers" and nationalistic "Slavophiles" that remains a key dynamic of current Russian social and political thought.  

During the reign of [[Peter the Great]] (1689-1725), modernization and European influences spread in Russia. Peter created Western-style military forces, subordinated the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] hierarchy to the tsar, reformed the entire governmental structure, and established the beginnings of a Western-style education system. He moved the capital westward from Moscow to [[St. Petersburg]], his newly-established city on the [[Baltic]]. His introduction of European customs generated nationalistic resentments in society and spawned the philosophical rivalry between "Westernizers" and nationalistic "Slavophiles" that remains a key dynamic of current Russian social and political thought.  

[[Catherine the Great]] continued Peter's expansionist policies and established Russia as a European power. During her reign (1762-96), power was centralized in the monarchy, and administrative reforms concentrated great wealth and privilege in the hands of the Russian nobility. Catherine was also known as an enthusiastic patron of art, literature and education and for her correspondence with [[Voltaire]] and other [[Enlightenment]] figures. Catherine also engaged in a territorial resettlement of Jews into what became known as "The Pale of Settlement," where great numbers of Jews were concentrated and later subject to vicious attacks known as pogroms.

[[Catherine the Great]] continued Peter's expansionist policies and established Russia as a European power. During her reign (1762–96), power was centralized in the monarchy, and administrative reforms concentrated great wealth and privilege in the hands of the Russian nobility. Catherine was also known as an enthusiastic patron of art, literature and education and for her correspondence with [[Voltaire]] and other [[Enlightenment]] figures. Catherine also engaged in a territorial resettlement of Jews into what became known as "The Pale of Settlement," where great numbers of Jews were concentrated and later subject to vicious attacks known as pogroms.

==19th Century==

==19th Century==

[[File:Princepotemkin.jpg|thumb|Prince Potemkin, Prime Minister of Imperial Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great.]]

[[File:Princepotemkin.jpg|thumb|Prince Potemkin, Prime Minister of Imperial Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great.]]

Stalin's successor, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], served as Communist Party leader until he was ousted in 1964.  

Stalin's successor, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], served as Communist Party leader until he was ousted in 1964.  

===Brezhnev===

===Brezhnev===

Aleksey Kosygin became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] was made First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1964. In 1971, Brezhnev rose to become "first among equals" in a collective leadership. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was succeeded by [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982-84) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984-85).  

Aleksey Kosygin became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] was made First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1964. In 1971, Brezhnev rose to become "first among equals" in a collective leadership. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was succeeded by [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982–84) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984-85).  

===Gorbachev and the fall of Communism===

===Gorbachev and the fall of Communism===

In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became the next (and last) General Secretary of the CPSU. Gorbachev introduced policies of [[perestroika]] (restructuring) and [[glasnost]] (openness). But his efforts to reform the creaky Communist system from within failed. The people of the Soviet Union were not content with half-freedoms granted by Moscow; they demanded more and the system collapsed. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the first president of the Russian Federation in 1991. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on December 25, 1991. Eleven days later, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved.

In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became the next (and last) General Secretary of the CPSU. Gorbachev introduced policies of [[perestroika]] (restructuring) and [[glasnost]] (openness). But his efforts to reform the creaky Communist system from within failed. The people of the Soviet Union were not content with half-freedoms granted by Moscow; they demanded more and the system collapsed. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the first president of the Russian Federation in 1991. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on December 25, 1991. Eleven days later, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved.

* Freeze, Gregory,ed. ''Russia: A History'' (1997), essays by British and American scholars.

* Freeze, Gregory,ed. ''Russia: A History'' (1997), essays by British and American scholars.

* Kaiser, Daniel H., Gary Marker, eds. ''Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings, 860-1860s'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/59594203?title=Reinterpreting%20Russian%20History%3a%20Readings%2c%20860-1860's online edition], essays by scholars  

* Kaiser, Daniel H., Gary Marker, eds. ''Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings, 860-1860s'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/59594203?title=Reinterpreting%20Russian%20History%3a%20Readings%2c%20860-1860's online edition], essays by scholars  

Subjects: Russia--Historiography, Russia--History--Sources

Subjects: Russia—Historiography, Russia—History—Sources

===Medieval to 1613===

===Medieval to 1613===

* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/79044140?title=The%20Great%20Terror%3a%20A%20Reassessment online edition]

* Conquest, Robert. ''The Great Terror: A Reassessment'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/79044140?title=The%20Great%20Terror%3a%20A%20Reassessment online edition]

* Pohl, J. Otto. ''Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/9465022?title=Ethnic%20Cleansing%20in%20the%20USSR%2c%201937-1949 online edition]

* Pohl, J. Otto. ''Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/9465022?title=Ethnic%20Cleansing%20in%20the%20USSR%2c%201937-1949 online edition]

* Rosefielde, Steven. "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s" ''Europe-Asia Studies,'' Vol. 48, No. 6 (Sep., 1996), pp. 959-987 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0966-8136(199609)48%3A6%3C959%3ASIPPNE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]

* Rosefielde, Steven. "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s" ''Europe-Asia Studies,'' Vol. 48, No. 6 (Sep., 1996), pp. 959–987 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0966-8136(199609)48%3A6%3C959%3ASIPPNE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]

===World War II===

===World War II===