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==Early life==

==Early life==

Gallatin was born in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], on Jan. 29, 1761. He was the son of an established aristocratic family. He was orphaned at age nine but well cared for by his extended family. While a student at the elite Geneva Academy, Gallatin read deeply in philosophy of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and the French Physiocrats; he became dissatisfied with the traditionalism of Geneva. As a student of the [[Enlightenment]], he believed in human nature and believed that when free from social trammels, it would display nobler qualities and achieve vaster results, not merely in the physical but also in the moral world. Thus the democratic spirit of America attracted him in 1780 at the age of 19.<ref>Henry Adams, ''Life of Albert Gallatin'' (1879) </ref>  

Gallatin was born in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], on Jan. 29, 1761. He was the son of an established aristocratic family. He was orphaned at age nine but well cared for by his extended family. While a student at the elite Geneva Academy, Gallatin read deeply in philosophy of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and the French Physiocrats; he became dissatisfied with the traditionalism of Geneva. As a student of the [[Enlightenment]], he believed in human nature and believed that when free from social trammels, it would display nobler qualities and achieve vaster results, not merely in the physical but also in the moral world. Thus the democratic spirit of America attracted him in 1780 at the age of 19.<ref>Henry Adams, ''Life of Albert Gallatin'' (1879)</ref>  

After time as an interpreter and partner of a speculator in western lands, in 1785 Gallatin settled on a farm in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. <ref>[http://www.nps.gov/archive/frhi/home.htm Friendship Hill] is now a national historic site.</ref> He was not good at land speculation or farming, but his experience on the frontier in [[Frontier Thesis|Turnerian fashion]] shaped his thinking and aided his political advancement. Shedding his aristocratic heritage, Gallatin became the exemplar and spokesman of western democracy, representing it at several state conventions and in four sessions of the [[Pennsylvania]] legislature, where he framed a program enabling the state to become debt-free. He was a workhorse, serving in the session of 1791-1792 on 35 committees, preparing all their reports, and drafting all their bills. His calls for a powerful legislature and weak executive displayed his trust in the people. In May, 1789, he married Sophie Allegre, but she died a few months later; in 1793, he married Hannah Nicholson from a prominent New York City family.

After time as an interpreter and partner of a speculator in western lands, in 1785 Gallatin settled on a farm in Fayette County, Pennsylvania.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/archive/frhi/home.htm Friendship Hill] is now a national historic site.</ref> He was not good at land speculation or farming, but his experience on the frontier in [[Frontier Thesis|Turnerian fashion]] shaped his thinking and aided his political advancement. Shedding his aristocratic heritage, Gallatin became the exemplar and spokesman of western democracy, representing it at several state conventions and in four sessions of the [[Pennsylvania]] legislature, where he framed a program enabling the state to become debt-free. He was a workhorse, serving in the session of 1791-1792 on 35 committees, preparing all their reports, and drafting all their bills. His calls for a powerful legislature and weak executive displayed his trust in the people. In May, 1789, he married Sophie Allegre, but she died a few months later; in 1793, he married Hannah Nicholson from a prominent New York City family.

==Political life==

==Political life==

Gallatin's mastery of public finance, an ability rare among members of the Jeffersonian party, led to his automatic choice as Secretary of the Treasury, despite Federalist attacks that he was a "foreigner" with a French accent. He was secretary from 1801 to May 1813 (and nominally until February 1814) under presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], the longest tenure of this office in American history. The national debt was seen as an indicator of waste and corruption. It stood at $80 million in 1801, and Gallatin devoted 3/4 of revenues to reducing it. Despite spending $15 million on Louisiana, and losing the tax on whiskey when it was repealed in 1802, Gallatin trimmed the debt to $45 million. The [[War of 1812]] proved expensive, and the debt soared to $123 million, even with burdensome new taxes, the tariff revenues collapsed as the British blockade cut off legitimate trade (there was plenty of smuggling, but smugglers never paid taxes.)

Gallatin's mastery of public finance, an ability rare among members of the Jeffersonian party, led to his automatic choice as Secretary of the Treasury, despite Federalist attacks that he was a "foreigner" with a French accent. He was secretary from 1801 to May 1813 (and nominally until February 1814) under presidents [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], the longest tenure of this office in American history. The national debt was seen as an indicator of waste and corruption. It stood at $80 million in 1801, and Gallatin devoted 3/4 of revenues to reducing it. Despite spending $15 million on Louisiana, and losing the tax on whiskey when it was repealed in 1802, Gallatin trimmed the debt to $45 million. The [[War of 1812]] proved expensive, and the debt soared to $123 million, even with burdensome new taxes, the tariff revenues collapsed as the British blockade cut off legitimate trade (there was plenty of smuggling, but smugglers never paid taxes.)

In 1808 Gallatin proposed a dramatic $20 million program of internal improvements -- that is roads and canals along the Atlantic seacoast and across the Appalachian mountain barrier to be financed by the federal government. It was rejected by the "Old Republican" faction of his party that deeply distrusted the national government, and anyway there was no money to pay for it. Most of Gallatin's proposals were eventually carried out, but this was done not by the concerted federal action he proposed, but by local governmental and private action. Though often wasteful, this method enlisted local and private energies in large enterprises.<ref>Carter Goodrich, "The Gallatin Plan after One Hundred and Fifty Years." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 1958 102(5): 436-441. </ref> While not a pacifist, he strongly opposed building up a navy and endorsed Jefferson's scheme of using small gunboats to protect major ports. (The plan failed in the War of 1812 as the British landed behind the harbors unhindered.)

In 1808 Gallatin proposed a dramatic $20 million program of internal improvements—that is roads and canals along the Atlantic seacoast and across the Appalachian mountain barrier to be financed by the federal government. It was rejected by the "Old Republican" faction of his party that deeply distrusted the national government, and anyway there was no money to pay for it. Most of Gallatin's proposals were eventually carried out, but this was done not by the concerted federal action he proposed, but by local governmental and private action. Though often wasteful, this method enlisted local and private energies in large enterprises.<ref>Carter Goodrich, "The Gallatin Plan after One Hundred and Fifty Years." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 1958 102(5): 436-441.</ref> While not a pacifist, he strongly opposed building up a navy and endorsed Jefferson's scheme of using small gunboats to protect major ports. (The plan failed in the War of 1812 as the British landed behind the harbors unhindered.)

Gallatin reluctantly supported Jefferson's [[Embargo of 1807|embargo of 1807-1808]], which tried to use economic coercion to change British policies, and failed to do so.<ref>Richard Mannix, "Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808," ''Diplomatic History'' (1979) 3:151-72</ref> The national bank had been allowed to expire over his objections, and New England financiers refused to loan money for the war effort, so Gallatin resorted to innovative methods to finance the war. In March 1813, he initiated the public bidding system that was to characterize subsequent government borrowings. A financial syndicate subscribed for 57% of the $16,000,000 loan, of which $5,720,000 came from from New York City, $6,858,000 from Philadelphia, and $75,000 from Boston.

Gallatin reluctantly supported Jefferson's [[Embargo of 1807|embargo of 1807-1808]], which tried to use economic coercion to change British policies, and failed to do so.<ref>Richard Mannix, "Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808," ''Diplomatic History'' (1979) 3:151-72</ref> The national bank had been allowed to expire over his objections, and New England financiers refused to loan money for the war effort, so Gallatin resorted to innovative methods to finance the war. In March 1813, he initiated the public bidding system that was to characterize subsequent government borrowings. A financial syndicate subscribed for 57% of the $16,000,000 loan, of which $5,720,000 came from from New York City, $6,858,000 from Philadelphia, and $75,000 from Boston.

==Father of American Ethnology==

==Father of American Ethnology==

From 1827 until his death Gallatin was a private citizen. He was president of the National Bank (later the Gallatin Bank) in New York from 1831 to 1839. He took a lively interest in politics, banking, and education, wrote prolifically on those subjects, and was a co-founder of [[New York University]], which named its undergraduate college after him. His last great endeavor was founding the American science of ethnology, with his studies of the languages of the Native Americans; he has been called "the father of American ethnology."  Founder of the American Ethnological Society in 1842, Gallatin underwrote most of the cost of its two volumes of ''Transactions'', and wrote for them "Notes on the Semicivilized Nations of Mexico, Yucatan and Central America"<ref>Albert Gallatin, "Notes on the semi-civilized nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America," ''Transactions American Ethnological Society,'' Vol. I (1945) </ref> and an introduction to "Hale's Indians of North-West America and Vocabularies of North America."<ref>Albert Gallatin, "Hale's Indians of north-west America, and vocabularies of North America: with an introduction," ''Transactions American Ethnological Society,'' Vol. II (1848)</ref>

From 1827 until his death Gallatin was a private citizen. He was president of the National Bank (later the Gallatin Bank) in New York from 1831 to 1839. He took a lively interest in politics, banking, and education, wrote prolifically on those subjects, and was a co-founder of [[New York University]], which named its undergraduate college after him. His last great endeavor was founding the American science of ethnology, with his studies of the languages of the Native Americans; he has been called "the father of American ethnology."  Founder of the American Ethnological Society in 1842, Gallatin underwrote most of the cost of its two volumes of ''Transactions'', and wrote for them "Notes on the Semicivilized Nations of Mexico, Yucatan and Central America"<ref>Albert Gallatin, "Notes on the semi-civilized nations of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America," ''Transactions American Ethnological Society,'' Vol. I (1945)</ref> and an introduction to "Hale's Indians of North-West America and Vocabularies of North America."<ref>Albert Gallatin, "Hale's Indians of north-west America, and vocabularies of North America: with an introduction," ''Transactions American Ethnological Society,'' Vol. II (1848)</ref>

==References==

==References==

* Cachia-Riedl, Markus Claudius.  "Albert Gallatin and the Politics of the New Nation."  PhD dissertation  U. of California, Berkeley 1998. 531 pp.  DAI 1999 59(8): 3167-A. DA9902016  Fulltext: online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses  

* Cachia-Riedl, Markus Claudius.  "Albert Gallatin and the Politics of the New Nation."  PhD dissertation  U. of California, Berkeley 1998. 531 pp.  DAI 1999 59(8): 3167-A. DA9902016  Fulltext: online at ProQuest Dissertations & Theses  

* Goodrich, Carter. "The Gallatin Plan after One Hundred and Fifty Years." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 1958 102(5): 436-441. Issn: 0003-049x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-049X(19581020)102%3A5%3C436%3ATGPAOH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 in Jstor]  

* Goodrich, Carter. "The Gallatin Plan after One Hundred and Fifty Years." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 1958 102(5): 436-441. Issn: 0003-049x Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-049X(19581020)102%3A5%3C436%3ATGPAOH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 in Jstor]  

* Hickey, Donald R. "American Trade Restrictions during the War of 1812," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 68, No. 3 (Dec., 1981), pp. 517-538 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(198112)68%3A3%3C517%3AATRDTW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D online at JSTOR]

* Hickey, Donald R. "American Trade Restrictions during the War of 1812," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 68, No. 3 (Dec., 1981), pp.&nbsp;517–538 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(198112)68%3A3%3C517%3AATRDTW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D online at JSTOR]

* Kuppenheimer, L. B.  ''Albert Gallatin's Vision of Democratic Stability: An Interpretive Profile.'' (1996). 152 pp.   

* Kuppenheimer, L. B.  ''Albert Gallatin's Vision of Democratic Stability: An Interpretive Profile.'' (1996). 152 pp.   

* Mannix, Richard. "Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808." ''Diplomatic History'' 1979 3(2): 151-172. Issn: 0145-2096  

* Mannix, Richard. "Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808." ''Diplomatic History'' 1979 3(2): 151-172. Issn: 0145-2096