Changes

After decades of eclipse, religion has become an increasingly important part of life, and many religious groups have emerged.  

After decades of eclipse, religion has become an increasingly important part of life, and many religious groups have emerged.  

Except perhaps for the Soviet era (1920-1989), religion was central to Armenian identity. Since the rise of Islam in 700 AD, Armenia has seen itself as the Christian outpost in the sea of Islam. The traditions of Eastern Christianity, as opposed to those of both Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christianity, have been preserved in virtual isolation and account for the survival of the Armenian people between their loss of independence in 1375 and the emergence of Armenian nationalism in the 19th century. Christianity has caused the Armenians to look toward Europe for cultural inspiration, especially--since the 18th century--to Italy, then France, then Russia (an indirect route for Western ideas), and finally to the United States.

Except perhaps for the Soviet era (1920-1989), religion was central to Armenian identity. Since the rise of Islam in 700 AD, Armenia has seen itself as the Christian outpost in the sea of Islam. The traditions of Eastern Christianity, as opposed to those of both Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christianity, have been preserved in virtual isolation and account for the survival of the Armenian people between their loss of independence in 1375 and the emergence of Armenian nationalism in the 19th century. Christianity has caused the Armenians to look toward Europe for cultural inspiration, especially—since the 18th century—to Italy, then France, then Russia (an indirect route for Western ideas), and finally to the United States.

[[File:Armenia2.jpg|thumb|550px|Ethnicity in Armenia and Caucasus]]

[[File:Armenia2.jpg|thumb|550px|Ethnicity in Armenia and Caucasus]]

The most serious problem between the short-lived Transcaucasian republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan was over the control of a mountainous region called Nagorno-Karabakh, located inside Azerbaijan  but with a 75% Armenian population. Britain, which occupied Transcaucasia after World War I, decided in favor of Azerbaijan in the summer of 1919. The settlement remained in force after the Red army took over both republics in 1920, but the Soviets were never able to resolve the dispute, which exploded into war as soon as both nations became independent. <ref> Artin H. Arslanian, "Britain and the Question of Mountainous Karabagh," ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 1980 16(1): 92-104. </ref>  

The most serious problem between the short-lived Transcaucasian republics of Armenia and Azerbaijan was over the control of a mountainous region called Nagorno-Karabakh, located inside Azerbaijan  but with a 75% Armenian population. Britain, which occupied Transcaucasia after World War I, decided in favor of Azerbaijan in the summer of 1919. The settlement remained in force after the Red army took over both republics in 1920, but the Soviets were never able to resolve the dispute, which exploded into war as soon as both nations became independent.<ref>Artin H. Arslanian, "Britain and the Question of Mountainous Karabagh," ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 1980 16(1): 92-104.</ref>  

Armenia regained its independence with the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1989.  Communism was overthrown but there were tensions with neighboring [[Georgia]] and a  war broke out with the Muslim nation of [[Azerbaijan]].  The '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh War]]''' was fought over the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. It is a small region inside Azerbaijan, but the population was three-fourths Armenian and they refused to be ruled by Azerbaijan. The war lasted from February 1988 to May 1994, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the spring of 1992. Some 17,000 people were killed in the conflict.  The region, now 95% Armenian, is controlled by Armenia and has a population of 140,000.<ref> see [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict], and [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_280.shtml Air War over Nagorniy-Kharabakh, 1988-1994]</ref>

Armenia regained its independence with the breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1989.  Communism was overthrown but there were tensions with neighboring [[Georgia]] and a  war broke out with the Muslim nation of [[Azerbaijan]].  The '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh War]]''' was fought over the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. It is a small region inside Azerbaijan, but the population was three-fourths Armenian and they refused to be ruled by Azerbaijan. The war lasted from February 1988 to May 1994, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the spring of 1992. Some 17,000 people were killed in the conflict.  The region, now 95% Armenian, is controlled by Armenia and has a population of 140,000.<ref>see [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/nagorno-karabakh.htm Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict], and [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_280.shtml Air War over Nagorniy-Kharabakh, 1988-1994]</ref>

Relations with Turkey (a [[NATO]] member) remain tense, primarily because Armenia demands, and Turkey refuses, to admit that Turkey was guilty of genocide in 1915. (Turkey says it was not genocide and that the Ottoman Empire was in charge.) As a candidate, President Obama said he would acknowledge the gencide. However, he visited Turkey in 2009 without using the word, which would offend Turkey, an important American ally. The White House released a statement on Armenian Remembrance Day in April that paid tribute to those who died but did not explicitly use the word "genocide".

Relations with Turkey (a [[NATO]] member) remain tense, primarily because Armenia demands, and Turkey refuses, to admit that Turkey was guilty of genocide in 1915. (Turkey says it was not genocide and that the Ottoman Empire was in charge.) As a candidate, President Obama said he would acknowledge the gencide. However, he visited Turkey in 2009 without using the word, which would offend Turkey, an important American ally. The White House released a statement on Armenian Remembrance Day in April that paid tribute to those who died but did not explicitly use the word "genocide".

Lives of saints and martyrologies were prevalent Armenian literary genres. Initially martyrology had three components: conflict between the Christian and his heathen torturer; interrogation between judge and defendant; and martyrdom. As political conditions changed, historical truth replaced idealization, superhuman saints became humanized, and visions and miracles gave way to stories of hardships suffered by ordinary individuals as under the Turks.  

Lives of saints and martyrologies were prevalent Armenian literary genres. Initially martyrology had three components: conflict between the Christian and his heathen torturer; interrogation between judge and defendant; and martyrdom. As political conditions changed, historical truth replaced idealization, superhuman saints became humanized, and visions and miracles gave way to stories of hardships suffered by ordinary individuals as under the Turks.  

Of the many 17th-century Armenian poets, the best known was Nerses Mokats'i (d. 1625), who studied at the Amrdolu monastery in Bitlis and the Mets Anapat in Siunik'; later he founded a monastic order on the island of Lim in Lake Van. Many works focused on the exile forced on many Armenians and the destruction wrought in Armenia by foreign forces, comparing this with the fate of Jerusalem. The destruction of the Armenian city of T'okhat' in 1602 by the Jalalis was lamented by Step'anos and Hakob T'okhat'ts'i. Simeon Lehats'i (1584-1637) criticized the educational level of the clergy in his historical poem Vipasanut'iun Nikolakan [Nikolian epic]. Many works eulogized cities and monasteries. Others were historical, such as the ''History of the Ottoman Kings'' and odes to John III Sobieski and [[Louis XIV]] by Eremia Ch'elepi K'eomiurchyan (1637-95).  

Of the many 17th-century Armenian poets, the best known was Nerses Mokats'i (d. 1625), who studied at the Amrdolu monastery in Bitlis and the Mets Anapat in Siunik'; later he founded a monastic order on the island of Lim in Lake Van. Many works focused on the exile forced on many Armenians and the destruction wrought in Armenia by foreign forces, comparing this with the fate of Jerusalem. The destruction of the Armenian city of T'okhat' in 1602 by the Jalalis was lamented by Step'anos and Hakob T'okhat'ts'i. Simeon Lehats'i (1584-1637) criticized the educational level of the clergy in his historical poem Vipasanut'iun Nikolakan [Nikolian epic]. Many works eulogized cities and monasteries. Others were historical, such as the ''History of the Ottoman Kings'' and odes to John III Sobieski and [[Louis XIV]] by Eremia Ch'elepi K'eomiurchyan (1637–95).  

The religious meditational poem Matyan Oghbergut'yan [Book of lamentations] by the medieval Armenian cleric Grigor Narekats'i (951-1003) was published widely in the 18th century and inspired contemporary poets such as Petros Nakhijevants'i (d. 1784) and Movses Jughayets'i.  

The religious meditational poem Matyan Oghbergut'yan [Book of lamentations] by the medieval Armenian cleric Grigor Narekats'i (951-1003) was published widely in the 18th century and inspired contemporary poets such as Petros Nakhijevants'i (d. 1784) and Movses Jughayets'i.  

===Cultural trends in Eastern Armenia (Russia)===

===Cultural trends in Eastern Armenia (Russia)===

The making of a modern Armenian nation was an intellectual event that took place largely outside the Armenian heartland in the Armenian communities of Western Turkey, Russia, India, and Europe. It was here that the first generation of patriotic intellectuals emerged. By the 18th century the Armenian language had fragmented into numerous mutually incomprehensible dialects, while any knowledge of Armenian history had been effectively wiped out except among a small group of monks, who copied and recopied the ancient texts. The first modern generation of Armenian patriots undertook a revival of Armenian letters and spread the new nationalism to the next generation of patriotic intellectuals from Western Anatolia and the Armenian colonies of the Russian Empire.<ref> Ronald Grigor Suny, "The Formation of the Armenian Patriotic Intelligentsia in Russia: The First Generations." ''Armenian Review'' 1983 36(3): 18-34. </ref>

The making of a modern Armenian nation was an intellectual event that took place largely outside the Armenian heartland in the Armenian communities of Western Turkey, Russia, India, and Europe. It was here that the first generation of patriotic intellectuals emerged. By the 18th century the Armenian language had fragmented into numerous mutually incomprehensible dialects, while any knowledge of Armenian history had been effectively wiped out except among a small group of monks, who copied and recopied the ancient texts. The first modern generation of Armenian patriots undertook a revival of Armenian letters and spread the new nationalism to the next generation of patriotic intellectuals from Western Anatolia and the Armenian colonies of the Russian Empire.<ref>Ronald Grigor Suny, "The Formation of the Armenian Patriotic Intelligentsia in Russia: The First Generations." ''Armenian Review'' 1983 36(3): 18-34.</ref>

The new literature of the Eastern Armenians which emerged in the mid-19th century resulted in a shift from the antiquated church language, which had dominated the literature of both parts of the country, to the currently used vernacular. The eastern center of its development was finally Yerevan, whose dialect became the adopted literary language of the east. The literature ranged from a romantic to a realist approach.  

The new literature of the Eastern Armenians which emerged in the mid-19th century resulted in a shift from the antiquated church language, which had dominated the literature of both parts of the country, to the currently used vernacular. The eastern center of its development was finally Yerevan, whose dialect became the adopted literary language of the east. The literature ranged from a romantic to a realist approach.  

Despite his short and difficult life, Armenian poet Petros Durian (1851-72) left a rich literary legacy: plays, poetry, and journalistic articles. His historical plays are the first examples of the romantic drama in Armenian literature, and express a deeply democratic mood of the writer; his journalistic writings show that Durian was concerned about contemporary social issues. But his poetry was his greatest contribution, rejecting classicism and descriptiveness, and full of deep feelings. Durian's lyrical hero, with few exceptions, is the poet himself, but his poems express mankind's thoughts and aspirations, and possess great social meaning.  

Despite his short and difficult life, Armenian poet Petros Durian (1851–72) left a rich literary legacy: plays, poetry, and journalistic articles. His historical plays are the first examples of the romantic drama in Armenian literature, and express a deeply democratic mood of the writer; his journalistic writings show that Durian was concerned about contemporary social issues. But his poetry was his greatest contribution, rejecting classicism and descriptiveness, and full of deep feelings. Durian's lyrical hero, with few exceptions, is the poet himself, but his poems express mankind's thoughts and aspirations, and possess great social meaning.  

Alexander Yeritsian (1841-1902) was a major Armenian public and literary figure who wrote on historical, archaeological, ethnic, and socioeconomic matters from a national-conservative viewpoint. Yeritsian was well read in European economics, and his views, as expressed in the economic weekly ''Vacharakan'', which started publication in Tiflis in 1866, cover commerce, speculative finance, silver and gold currency, paper money, rise and fall in the value of money, free trade, competition, supply and demand, industry and savings, and other aspects of the world economy of his day.  

Alexander Yeritsian (1841-1902) was a major Armenian public and literary figure who wrote on historical, archaeological, ethnic, and socioeconomic matters from a national-conservative viewpoint. Yeritsian was well read in European economics, and his views, as expressed in the economic weekly ''Vacharakan'', which started publication in Tiflis in 1866, cover commerce, speculative finance, silver and gold currency, paper money, rise and fall in the value of money, free trade, competition, supply and demand, industry and savings, and other aspects of the world economy of his day.  

The Armenian journalist Grigor Artsruni (1845-92) published the first European-style Armenian magazine, ''Mshak'' in Tbilisi. As editor and proprietor from 1872 to 1892, he published views on a wide range of contemporary national and international issues: the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the rise of the Eastern Question, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878, especially as they affected the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The newspaper has played an important role in Armenian social and intellectual life, consistently promoting solidarity among Armenians, Russians, and the people of the Caucasus, and promoting economic and cultural ties. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, convinced that the liberation of the Armenian people was possible only with Russia's help, Mshak supported the western Armenians' liberation movement. Encouraging the development of Armenian literature, the newspaper championed critical realism. It broadened the world view of the Armenian press by covering all major events and cultural phenomena. Many Armenian intellectuals contributed to ''Mshak''; the most prominent was the novelist Raffi (pseud. for Hakob Melik` Hakobyan, 1835-88). .  

The Armenian journalist Grigor Artsruni (1845–92) published the first European-style Armenian magazine, ''Mshak'' in Tbilisi. As editor and proprietor from 1872 to 1892, he published views on a wide range of contemporary national and international issues: the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the rise of the Eastern Question, and the Congress of Berlin in 1878, especially as they affected the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The newspaper has played an important role in Armenian social and intellectual life, consistently promoting solidarity among Armenians, Russians, and the people of the Caucasus, and promoting economic and cultural ties. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78, convinced that the liberation of the Armenian people was possible only with Russia's help, Mshak supported the western Armenians' liberation movement. Encouraging the development of Armenian literature, the newspaper championed critical realism. It broadened the world view of the Armenian press by covering all major events and cultural phenomena. Many Armenian intellectuals contributed to ''Mshak''; the most prominent was the novelist Raffi (pseud. for Hakob Melik` Hakobyan, 1835–88). .  

A. Araskhanian (1857-1912), editor of the Armenian monthly ''Moorch'' published in Tiflis, 1889-1907, resolved to foster literary cultural progress through the press. Philologists, literary critics, and intellectuals wrote on the history and theory of literature for Moorch and encouraged young writers and initiators of the literature of village life. Moorch enhanced understanding between writers in Eastern Armenia (in Russia) and Western Armenia (in the Ottoman Empire), emphasized the interaction between life and literature, and consistently observed progressive principles in literary criticism.  

A. Araskhanian (1857-1912), editor of the Armenian monthly ''Moorch'' published in Tiflis, 1889-1907, resolved to foster literary cultural progress through the press. Philologists, literary critics, and intellectuals wrote on the history and theory of literature for Moorch and encouraged young writers and initiators of the literature of village life. Moorch enhanced understanding between writers in Eastern Armenia (in Russia) and Western Armenia (in the Ottoman Empire), emphasized the interaction between life and literature, and consistently observed progressive principles in literary criticism.  

Armenian folk songs emerged when minstrels transmitted mythological and epic songs orally from generation to generation. Later folk songs reflected every aspect of life: love, religion, humor, patriotism, aspiration for freedom, emigrants' nostalgia, wedding songs, lullabies, dances, and festivities. In 1891 Komitas (1869-1935) started collecting and setting them to music, a program that folklorists have continued. After World War I, floklorists traveled across Europe to systematically collect, set to music, and save thousands of folk songs from permanent loss.  

Armenian folk songs emerged when minstrels transmitted mythological and epic songs orally from generation to generation. Later folk songs reflected every aspect of life: love, religion, humor, patriotism, aspiration for freedom, emigrants' nostalgia, wedding songs, lullabies, dances, and festivities. In 1891 Komitas (1869-1935) started collecting and setting them to music, a program that folklorists have continued. After World War I, floklorists traveled across Europe to systematically collect, set to music, and save thousands of folk songs from permanent loss.  

Spiridon Melikian (1880-1933) a student of Komitas, composer, conductor and lecturer, devoted his life to Armenian music. While studying music in Berlin (1905-08) he had his copy of Komitas's collection of Armenian folk songs, which he published in 1931. His expeditions into Armenian villages yielded more than 1,000 folk songs which he set to music. In Tiflis (1909-21) and Erevan Conservatory (1923-33) he conducted choirs, taught theory, trained musicians, and prepared textbooks for music teachers. Apart from his compositions, he published ''Analysis of Komitas's Work,'' ''Scales of Armenian Folk-songs,'' and ''Outline of Armenian Music''. Two volumes of his folk songs were published posthumously (1949, 1952).  

Spiridon Melikian (1880-1933) a student of Komitas, composer, conductor and lecturer, devoted his life to Armenian music. While studying music in Berlin (1905–08) he had his copy of Komitas's collection of Armenian folk songs, which he published in 1931. His expeditions into Armenian villages yielded more than 1,000 folk songs which he set to music. In Tiflis (1909–21) and Erevan Conservatory (1923–33) he conducted choirs, taught theory, trained musicians, and prepared textbooks for music teachers. Apart from his compositions, he published ''Analysis of Komitas's Work,'' ''Scales of Armenian Folk-songs,'' and ''Outline of Armenian Music''. Two volumes of his folk songs were published posthumously (1949, 1952).  

The classical musician Genari Korganov (1858-90) was known as a pianist, composer, and critic. He was the music critic for the Tiflis (Tbilisi) ''Kavkaz'' (''Caucasus'') newspaper, his principal interest being operatic and symphonic works, and gave a number of recitals from 1884 to his sudden death in 1890. The Russian composer Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935) dedicated his Armenian Rhapsody to him.  

The classical musician Genari Korganov (1858–90) was known as a pianist, composer, and critic. He was the music critic for the Tiflis (Tbilisi) ''Kavkaz'' (''Caucasus'') newspaper, his principal interest being operatic and symphonic works, and gave a number of recitals from 1884 to his sudden death in 1890. The Russian composer Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935) dedicated his Armenian Rhapsody to him.  

A leading musician of the 20th century was Armen Tigranian (1879-1950) of Yerevan. In 1912 he composed his opera "Anush", based on Hovhannes Toumanian's dramatic ballad reflecting Armenian village life. Reedited in its final form in 1939, Anush has been popular with Armenians everywhere. Tigranian's second opera, "Davit-Bek" (started during World War II and finished in 1949) was inspired by an 18th-century national freedom fighter. Tigranian's music is melodious, lyric, and closely linked with traditional Armenian secular and church songs, truly the music of the people, composed with inspiration, talent, and technical skill.

A leading musician of the 20th century was Armen Tigranian (1879-1950) of Yerevan. In 1912 he composed his opera "Anush", based on Hovhannes Toumanian's dramatic ballad reflecting Armenian village life. Reedited in its final form in 1939, Anush has been popular with Armenians everywhere. Tigranian's second opera, "Davit-Bek" (started during World War II and finished in 1949) was inspired by an 18th-century national freedom fighter. Tigranian's music is melodious, lyric, and closely linked with traditional Armenian secular and church songs, truly the music of the people, composed with inspiration, talent, and technical skill.

The most important Armenian composer was [[Aram Khachaturian]] (1903-78). Born in Tiflis, he moved to Moscow in 1924 and built his careeer there. he was an enthusiastic Communist until his music was condemned by the Party in 1948.<ref> Victor Yuzefovich, ''Aram Ilych Khachaturyan,'' (1985) 283 pp.</ref>

The most important Armenian composer was [[Aram Khachaturian]] (1903–78). Born in Tiflis, he moved to Moscow in 1924 and built his careeer there. he was an enthusiastic Communist until his music was condemned by the Party in 1948.<ref>Victor Yuzefovich, ''Aram Ilych Khachaturyan,'' (1985) 283 pp.</ref>

In the Armenian diaspora, important cultural leaders have included writers Michael Arlen (1895-1956) in Britain, Arthur Adamov (1911-70) and Henri Troyat in France, and William Saroyan (1908-1981) in California. The prolific composer [[Alan Hovhannes]] (1908-2000), based in Boston and New York, drew upon Armenian church music to produce major classical compositions.

In the Armenian diaspora, important cultural leaders have included writers Michael Arlen (1895-1956) in Britain, Arthur Adamov (1911–70) and Henri Troyat in France, and William Saroyan (1908-1981) in California. The prolific composer [[Alan Hovhannes]] (1908-2000), based in Boston and New York, drew upon Armenian church music to produce major classical compositions.

===Historiography===

===Historiography===

* Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian, Patrick; and Mutafian, Claude. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh.'' (1994). 198 pp.

* Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian, Patrick; and Mutafian, Claude. ''The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh.'' (1994). 198 pp.

* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''Armenia on the road to independance 1918'' (1967)

* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''Armenia on the road to independance 1918'' (1967)

* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''The republic of Armenia. Vol. 1, The first year, 1918-1919'' (1971); ''Vol. 2, From Versailles to London, 1919-1920'' (1982); ''Vol. 3, From London to Sèvres, February-August 1920'' (1997); ''Vol. 4, Between crescent and sickle: partition and Sovietization'' (1997)

* Hovannisian, Richard G. ''The republic of Armenia. Vol. 1, The first year, 1918-1919'' (1971); ''Vol. 2, From Versailles to London, 1919-1920'' (1982); ''Vol. 3, From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920'' (1997); ''Vol. 4, Between crescent and sickle: partition and Sovietization'' (1997)

* Mitra,  Saumya, et al. '' The Caucasian tiger: sustaining economic growth in Armenia‎'' (2007) 610pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWAwYSslb7UC full text online free from World Bank]

* Mitra,  Saumya, et al. '' The Caucasian tiger: sustaining economic growth in Armenia‎'' (2007) 610pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWAwYSslb7UC full text online free from World Bank]

* Villa, Susie Hoogasian and Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. ''Armenian Village Life Before 1914.'' (1982). 197 pp.

* Villa, Susie Hoogasian and Matossian, Mary Kilbourne. ''Armenian Village Life Before 1914.'' (1982). 197 pp.