Changes

The area was long part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I and the new state was born with [[T.G. Masaryk|Tomáš Masaryk]] (1850-1937) the first president, serving 1918-1935. He was succeeded by his close ally [[Benes|Eduard Benes]] (1884-1948).

The area was long part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I and the new state was born with [[T.G. Masaryk|Tomáš Masaryk]] (1850-1937) the first president, serving 1918-1935. He was succeeded by his close ally [[Benes|Eduard Benes]] (1884-1948).

The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, when philologists and educators, influenced by [[Romanticism]], promoted the Czech language and pride in the Czech nation.  Nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century.  Taking advantage of the opportunities for limited participation in political life available under Austrian rule, Czech leaders such as historian František Palacký  (1798-1878), founded numerous patriotic, self-help organizations that provided a chance for many of their compatriots to participate in communal life even prior to independence.  At first Palacky supported Austro-Slavism and worked for a reorganized, federalized, and Slavic-dominated Austrian Empire to protect Slavs against Russian and German threats. The failure of the Revolution of 1848, however, crushed his hopes for Austro-Slavism. Palacky then turned gradually toward Russia and Russian-led Pan-Slavism. An advocate of democratic reform and Czech autonomy within Austria-Hungary, Masaryk was twice elected (1891, 1907) to the Austrian parliament.  In 1900 he founded the Progressive (or Realist) party.  With the outbreak of World War I, however, Masaryk began working for Czech independence in union with Slovakia.  With colleagues Eduard Benes and Milan Stefanik, he visited several Western nations and won support from influential publicists.<ref> Z. A. B. Zeman,  ''The Masaryks:  The Making of Czechoslovakia'' (1976)</ref>   

The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, when philologists and educators, influenced by [[Romanticism]], promoted the Czech language and pride in the Czech nation.  Nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century.  Taking advantage of the opportunities for limited participation in political life available under Austrian rule, Czech leaders such as historian František Palacký  (1798-1878), founded numerous patriotic, self-help organizations that provided a chance for many of their compatriots to participate in communal life even prior to independence.  At first Palacky supported Austro-Slavism and worked for a reorganized, federalized, and Slavic-dominated Austrian Empire to protect Slavs against Russian and German threats. The failure of the Revolution of 1848, however, crushed his hopes for Austro-Slavism. Palacky then turned gradually toward Russia and Russian-led Pan-Slavism. An advocate of democratic reform and Czech autonomy within Austria-Hungary, Masaryk was twice elected (1891, 1907) to the Austrian parliament.  In 1900 he founded the Progressive (or Realist) party.  With the outbreak of World War I, however, Masaryk began working for Czech independence in union with Slovakia.  With colleagues Eduard Benes and Milan Stefanik, he visited several Western nations and won support from influential publicists.<ref>Z. A. B. Zeman,  ''The Masaryks:  The Making of Czechoslovakia'' (1976)</ref>   

Bohemia and Moravia, under Austrian rule, were Czech-speaking major industrial centers, while Slovakia, which was part of Hungary, was an undeveloped agrarian region.  Conditions were much better for the development of a mass national movement in the Czech lands than in Slovakia. Nevertheless the two movements realized they were too small to go it alone, so they joined to create the new country.   

Bohemia and Moravia, under Austrian rule, were Czech-speaking major industrial centers, while Slovakia, which was part of Hungary, was an undeveloped agrarian region.  Conditions were much better for the development of a mass national movement in the Czech lands than in Slovakia. Nevertheless the two movements realized they were too small to go it alone, so they joined to create the new country.   

The period between the two world wars saw the flowering of democracy in Czechoslovakia.  Of all the new states established in central Europe after 1918, only Czechoslovakia preserved a democratic government until it was ended by outside forces. The persistence of democracy in part reflected the fact that the preconditions for maintaining democracy were better in Czechoslovakia than elsewhere in the region.  Thus, despite regional disparities, its level of development was much higher than that of neighboring states.  The population was by and large literate, and contained fewer alienated groups.  The impact of these conditions was augmented by political values of Czechoslovakia's leaders and the policies they adopted.  Under [[Tomas Masaryk]] Czech and Slovak politicians promoted progressive social and economic conditions that served to diffuse discontent.

The period between the two world wars saw the flowering of democracy in Czechoslovakia.  Of all the new states established in central Europe after 1918, only Czechoslovakia preserved a democratic government until it was ended by outside forces. The persistence of democracy in part reflected the fact that the preconditions for maintaining democracy were better in Czechoslovakia than elsewhere in the region.  Thus, despite regional disparities, its level of development was much higher than that of neighboring states.  The population was by and large literate, and contained fewer alienated groups.  The impact of these conditions was augmented by political values of Czechoslovakia's leaders and the policies they adopted.  Under [[Tomas Masaryk]] Czech and Slovak politicians promoted progressive social and economic conditions that served to diffuse discontent.

Foreign minister Benes became the prime architect of the Czechoslovak-Romanian-Yugoslav alliance (the "Little Entente", 1921-38) directed against Hungarian attempts to reclaim lost areas with Hungarian majorities. Benes worked closely with France.  By a major blunder in 1918 the nation included "Sudetenland" an outer fringe region that comprised 3 million Germans, who wanted no part in the new country and who were treated as second class citizens by the new government in Prague. The original idea was that the Sudetenland had hilly areas that made feasible a military defense; far more dangerous was the German element, which after 1933 became allied with the Nazis in Germany.  Czechoslovakia's great fortune was in having talented political leaders willing to compromise within the delicate balance of coalition government. Even a stabilized economy by 1937 could not help Czechoslovakia withstand Hitler.  

Foreign minister Benes became the prime architect of the Czechoslovak-Romanian-Yugoslav alliance (the "Little Entente", 1921–38) directed against Hungarian attempts to reclaim lost areas with Hungarian majorities. Benes worked closely with France.  By a major blunder in 1918 the nation included "Sudetenland" an outer fringe region that comprised 3 million Germans, who wanted no part in the new country and who were treated as second class citizens by the new government in Prague. The original idea was that the Sudetenland had hilly areas that made feasible a military defense; far more dangerous was the German element, which after 1933 became allied with the Nazis in Germany.  Czechoslovakia's great fortune was in having talented political leaders willing to compromise within the delicate balance of coalition government. Even a stabilized economy by 1937 could not help Czechoslovakia withstand Hitler.  

===Munich and World War II===

===Munich and World War II===

In 1938 Hitler demanded control of the Sudetenland, and the major powers at the Munich Conference gave it to them to avoid a world war, ignoring the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France.  In 1939 the Nazis took over the rest of the the country, split it apart, and ruled cruelly during World War II.  Growing Slovak inferiority complex hostile to the more numerous Czech population weakened Czechoslovakia in the late 1930s.  Many Slovaks supported an extreme nationalist movement and welcomed the puppet Slovak state set up under Hitler's control in 1939.

In 1938 Hitler demanded control of the Sudetenland, and the major powers at the Munich Conference gave it to them to avoid a world war, ignoring the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France.  In 1939 the Nazis took over the rest of the the country, split it apart, and ruled cruelly during World War II.  Growing Slovak inferiority complex hostile to the more numerous Czech population weakened Czechoslovakia in the late 1930s.  Many Slovaks supported an extreme nationalist movement and welcomed the puppet Slovak state set up under Hitler's control in 1939.

With no army, the area became an industrial and agricultural resource for the Nazis; relatively few civilians were killed in the war, but the sense of bitterness  over the betrayal at Munich persisted.  

With no army, the area became an industrial and agricultural resource for the Nazis; relatively few civilians were killed in the war, but the sense of bitterness  over the betrayal at Munich persisted.  

===Communist takeover in 1948===

===Communist takeover in 1948===

Benes, the pre-occupation president who had led the Czechoslovak government in exile from London resumed his position as president, 1945-48. The Germans were all expelled and went to West Germany--which proved their escape from Communism.  After a three-year struggle with the Communists, who had control of the media and national police, Benes again capitulated in order to avoid a bloodbath.  Soviet influence was exerted through the Red Army; Stalin refused to allow the country to join the [[Marshall Plan]]. Stalin had his own plan, In Feb. 1948 the local Communists seized control. The old elite was exiled, imprisoned or killed the patriots and turned the country into a powerless satellite of the Soviet Union.  They kept filled 422 prisons and concentration camps with dissidents.  Western outrage as the Communist takeover was a major factor that caused the [[Cold War]].<ref>Karel Kaplan, ''The Short March: The Communist Take-Over of Power in Czechoslovakia, 1945-48'' (1986)</ref>  

Benes, the pre-occupation president who had led the Czechoslovak government in exile from London resumed his position as president, 1945-48. The Germans were all expelled and went to West Germany—which proved their escape from Communism.  After a three-year struggle with the Communists, who had control of the media and national police, Benes again capitulated in order to avoid a bloodbath.  Soviet influence was exerted through the Red Army; Stalin refused to allow the country to join the [[Marshall Plan]]. Stalin had his own plan, In Feb. 1948 the local Communists seized control. The old elite was exiled, imprisoned or killed the patriots and turned the country into a powerless satellite of the Soviet Union.  They kept filled 422 prisons and concentration camps with dissidents.  Western outrage as the Communist takeover was a major factor that caused the [[Cold War]].<ref>Karel Kaplan, ''The Short March: The Communist Take-Over of Power in Czechoslovakia, 1945-48'' (1986)</ref>  

The Reds followed the Soviet model for their economy, which marked a step backward. No other East European country was to be so nationalized in agriculture and industry. Trade patterns changed; 70% of the trade was with the Soviet bloc and only 19% was with the West. The economic reforms of the Prague Spring of 1968 were thoroughly dismantled after the Soviet intervention.

The Reds followed the Soviet model for their economy, which marked a step backward. No other East European country was to be so nationalized in agriculture and industry. Trade patterns changed; 70% of the trade was with the Soviet bloc and only 19% was with the West. The economic reforms of the Prague Spring of 1968 were thoroughly dismantled after the Soviet intervention.

===Korbel===

===Korbel===

Josef Korbel (1909-77) was a diplomat<ref>He was of Jewish descent but kept that secret from his daughter, who was raised Catholic.</ref> who served successively as Jan Masaryk's personal secretary, head of the broadcasting department of the Czech government-in-exile in London, youngest Czech ambassador at age 36 to postwar Yugoslavia, and chairman of the UN Commission on India and Pakistan which settled the Kashmir crisis. Exiled after the 1948 Communist coup d'etat, Korbel began a second distinguished career in academia, teaching at the University of Denver and publishing numerous works on political and diplomatic history and explaining the failures of Communism.  His shaped two secretaries of state--his PhD student [[Condoleezza Rice]] (b. 1954) and his daughter [[Madelaine Albright|Madelaine Korbel Albright]] (b. 1937)

Josef Korbel (1909–77) was a diplomat<ref>He was of Jewish descent but kept that secret from his daughter, who was raised Catholic.</ref> who served successively as Jan Masaryk's personal secretary, head of the broadcasting department of the Czech government-in-exile in London, youngest Czech ambassador at age 36 to postwar Yugoslavia, and chairman of the UN Commission on India and Pakistan which settled the Kashmir crisis. Exiled after the 1948 Communist coup d'etat, Korbel began a second distinguished career in academia, teaching at the University of Denver and publishing numerous works on political and diplomatic history and explaining the failures of Communism.  His shaped two secretaries of state—his PhD student [[Condoleezza Rice]] (b. 1954) and his daughter [[Madelaine Albright|Madelaine Korbel Albright]] (b. 1937)

==Religion==

==Religion==

The land of Czechoslovakia contained many different religions affiliations.  The main ones were: [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Czechoslovak National Church]], [[Slovak Evangelical Church]], [[Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren]], and [[Uniate Church]]. The majority of inhabitants were Roman Catholic.  There were also a small number of Jews.  After the communist takeover religion was suppressed, even though the constitution allowed freedom of religion.  Between 1948 and 1968, the number of catholic [[priests]] declined by half, and half the remaining clergy were over sixty years of age<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cs0080)</ref>. The communist governments promoted [[atheism]] through the use of harassment and [[propaganda]], and they also promoted it in schools by ordering teachers to attack religion.

The land of Czechoslovakia contained many different religions affiliations.  The main ones were: [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Czechoslovak National Church]], [[Slovak Evangelical Church]], [[Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren]], and [[Uniate Church]]. The majority of inhabitants were Roman Catholic.  There were also a small number of Jews.  After the communist takeover religion was suppressed, even though the constitution allowed freedom of religion.  Between 1948 and 1968, the number of catholic [[priests]] declined by half, and half the remaining clergy were over sixty years of age.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cs0080)</ref>  The communist governments promoted [[atheism]] through the use of harassment and [[propaganda]], and they also promoted it in schools by ordering teachers to attack religion.

== Demography ==

== Demography ==

==External links==

==External links==

[http://www.lib.umich.edu/spec-coll/czech/ Soviet Invasion of 1968]

* [http://www.lib.umich.edu/spec-coll/czech/ Soviet Invasion of 1968]

[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cstoc.html Library of Congress Country Studies] Czechoslovakia in Public Domain

* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cstoc.html Library of Congress Country Studies] Czechoslovakia in Public Domain

==References==

==References==

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