Changes

As a Democrat committed to geographic expansion (or "[[Manifest Destiny]]") he overrode Whig objections and was responsible for the largest expansion of the nation's territory (exceeding even the [[Louisiana Purchase]]). He secured the [[Oregon Territory]] (including Washington, Oregon and Idaho), then purchased 1.2 million square miles through the [[Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of|Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] that ended the [[Mexican–American War]]. The expansionism, however, opened a furious debate over slavery in the new territories that was resolved by the [[Compromise of 1850]]. He signed the Walker Tariff of 1846 that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the [[United States Naval Academy]] and the [[Smithsonian]], the groundbreaking for the [[Washington Monument]], and the issuance of the first postage stamps in the U.S.  He was the first President of the United States to be extensively photographed while in office.<ref>[http://www.whitehousehistory.org/08/subs/08_b.html The White House Historical Association], retrieved January 23, 2007</ref> Presidential scholars have ranked him 8th to 12th on the list of greatest presidents for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it.  

As a Democrat committed to geographic expansion (or "[[Manifest Destiny]]") he overrode Whig objections and was responsible for the largest expansion of the nation's territory (exceeding even the [[Louisiana Purchase]]). He secured the [[Oregon Territory]] (including Washington, Oregon and Idaho), then purchased 1.2 million square miles through the [[Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of|Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] that ended the [[Mexican–American War]]. The expansionism, however, opened a furious debate over slavery in the new territories that was resolved by the [[Compromise of 1850]]. He signed the Walker Tariff of 1846 that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the [[United States Naval Academy]] and the [[Smithsonian]], the groundbreaking for the [[Washington Monument]], and the issuance of the first postage stamps in the U.S.  He was the first President of the United States to be extensively photographed while in office.<ref>[http://www.whitehousehistory.org/08/subs/08_b.html The White House Historical Association], retrieved January 23, 2007</ref> Presidential scholars have ranked him 8th to 12th on the list of greatest presidents for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it.  

==Early life==  

==Early life==

Polk, the first of ten children, was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, in 1795. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, farmer and surveyor of [[Scots-Irish]] descent, and related to Scottish nobility. His mother, Jane Polk (née Knox) was a descendant of the Scottish religious reformer [[John Knox]]. In 1806, the Polk family moved to Tennessee, settling near Duck River in what is now Maury County. The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk becoming one of the leading planters of the area. When James was 11, his family moved to [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]

Polk, the first of ten children, was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, in 1795. His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, farmer and surveyor of [[Scots-Irish]] descent, and related to Scottish nobility. His mother, Jane Polk (née Knox) was a descendant of the Scottish religious reformer [[John Knox]]. In 1806, the Polk family moved to Tennessee, settling near Duck River in what is now Maury County. The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk becoming one of the leading planters of the area. When James was 11, his family moved to [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]

Polk was home schooled; his formal education began at the age of 18, when he studied at Zion Church near his home. He later attended a school in Murfreesboro, where he met his future wife, Sarah Childress. After less than three years of attending the school, Polk left Tennessee to enroll in the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. While there, he practiced his oratorical skills as a member of the Dialectic Society. He graduated in 1818 and returned to Nashville, Tennessee to study law under [[Felix Grundy]]. Polk was admitted to the bar in 1820, and established his own practice in Columbia, Tennessee. He worked with [[Aaron V. Brown]], future governor of Tennessee and postmaster general.

Polk was home schooled; his formal education began at the age of 18, when he studied at Zion Church near his home. He later attended a school in Murfreesboro, where he met his future wife, Sarah Childress. After less than three years of attending the school, Polk left Tennessee to enroll in the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. While there, he practiced his oratorical skills as a member of the Dialectic Society. He graduated in 1818 and returned to Nashville, Tennessee to study law under [[Felix Grundy]]. Polk was admitted to the bar in 1820, and established his own practice in Columbia, Tennessee. He worked with [[Aaron V. Brown]], future governor of Tennessee and postmaster general.

==Career as slaveholder==

==Career as slaveholder==

Polk was a slaveholder for almost his entire adult life. His father Samuel left title to over 8,000 acres of land and about 53 slaves to his widow and his children. James inherited control over nine of his father's slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending slaves to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Three years later he sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi. He ran this plantation for the rest of his life, eventually taking it over completely from his brother-in-law. He infrequently bought more slaves and sold others, although once he became President and could better afford it, he bought more slaves. Polk's will stipulated that their slaves were to be manumitted (freed) after both he and his wife Sarah had died. However, the 1863 [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment freed all remaining slaves in rebel states some more than twenty years before the death of his wife in 1891.

Polk was a slaveholder for almost his entire adult life. His father Samuel left title to over 8,000 acres of land and about 53 slaves to his widow and his children. James inherited control over nine of his father's slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending slaves to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Three years later he sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi. He ran this plantation for the rest of his life, eventually taking it over completely from his brother-in-law. He infrequently bought more slaves and sold others, although once he became President and could better afford it, he bought more slaves. Polk's will stipulated that their slaves were to be manumitted (freed) after both he and his wife Sarah had died. However, the 1863 [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment freed all remaining slaves in rebel states some more than twenty years before the death of his wife in 1891.

====War with Mexico====

====War with Mexico====

{{Main|Mexican-American War}}

{{Main|Mexican-American War}}

After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to California, hoping to acquire the territory from Mexico before any European nation did so. The main interest was San Francisco Bay as an access point for trade with Asia. In 1845, he sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California and New Mexico for $20-30 million dollars. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of Texas. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. In January 1846 to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, Polk sent troops under General [[Zachary Taylor]] into the area between the [[Nueces River]] and the [[Rio Grande]]&mdash;territory that was claimed by both the U.S. and Mexico.

After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to California, hoping to acquire the territory from Mexico before any European nation did so. The main interest was San Francisco Bay as an access point for trade with Asia. In 1845, he sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California and New Mexico for $20–30 million dollars. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of Texas. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. In January 1846 to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, Polk sent troops under General [[Zachary Taylor]] into the area between the [[Nueces River]] and the [[Rio Grande]]&mdash;territory that was claimed by both the U.S. and Mexico.

Slidell returned to Washington in May 1846, having been rebuffed by the Mexican government. Polk regarded this treatment of his diplomat as an insult and an "ample cause of war",<ref> Haynes p. 129 </ref> and he prepared to ask Congress for a declaration of war.  Coincidentally, mere days before Polk intended to make his request to Congress, he received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American troops. Polk then made this the ''casus belli'', and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." He did not point out that the territory in question was disputed and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. Whig Congressman [[Abraham Lincoln]], expressed doubts about Polk's version of events, challenging the factual claims made by President Polk about the boundary, claiming it was indeterminate and should not have been a cause of war.<ref> see  [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=020/llcg020.db&recNum=102 ''Congressional Globe'', 30th Session (1848) pp.93-95]</ref>  

Slidell returned to Washington in May 1846, having been rebuffed by the Mexican government. Polk regarded this treatment of his diplomat as an insult and an "ample cause of war",<ref>Haynes p. 129</ref> and he prepared to ask Congress for a declaration of war.  Coincidentally, mere days before Polk intended to make his request to Congress, he received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American troops. Polk then made this the ''casus belli'', and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." He did not point out that the territory in question was disputed and did not unequivocally belong to the United States. Whig Congressman [[Abraham Lincoln]], expressed doubts about Polk's version of events, challenging the factual claims made by President Polk about the boundary, claiming it was indeterminate and should not have been a cause of war.<ref>see  [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=020/llcg020.db&recNum=102 ''Congressional Globe'', 30th Session (1848) pp.93-95]</ref>  

but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war, many Whigs fearing that opposition would cost them politically by casting themselves as unpatriotic for not supporting the war effort.<ref>In January 1848, the Whigs won a House procedural vote attacking Polk in an amendment to a resolution praising Major General Taylor for his service in a "war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States". See [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?hlaw:1:./temp/~ammem_UWhq::@@@mdb=mcc,gottscho,detr,nfor,wpa,aap,cwar,bbpix,cowellbib,calbkbib,consrvbib,bdsbib,dag,fsaall,gmd,pan,vv,presp,varstg,suffrg,nawbib,horyd,wtc,toddbib,mgw,ncr,ngp,musdibib,hlaw,papr,lhbumbib,rbpebib,lbcoll,alad,hh,aaodyssey,magbell,bbcards,dcm,raelbib,runyon,dukesm,lomaxbib,mtj,gottlieb,aep,qlt,coolbib,fpnas,aasm,scsm,denn,relpet,amss,aaeo,mffbib,afc911bib,mjm,mnwp,rbcmillerbib,molden,ww2map,mfdipbib,afcnyebib,klpmap,hawp,omhbib,rbaapcbib,mal,ncpsbib,ncpm,lhbprbib,ftvbib,afcreed,aipn,cwband,flwpabib,wpapos,cmns,psbib,pin,coplandbib,cola,tccc,curt,mharendt,lhbcbbib,eaa,haybib,mesnbib,fine,cwnyhs,svybib,mmorse,afcwwgbib,mymhiwebib,uncall,afcwip,mtaft,manz,llstbib,fawbib,berl,fmuever,cdn,upboverbib,mussm,cic,afcpearl,awh,awhbib,sgp,wright,lhbtnbib,afcesnbib,hurstonbib,mreynoldsbib,spaldingbib,sgproto  ''House Journal,'' 30th Session (1848) pp.183-184] The resolution, however, died in committee.</ref> In the House, anti-slavery Whigs led by [[John Quincy Adams]] voted against the war; among Democrats, Senator [[John C. Calhoun]] was the most notable opponent of the war, because it implied the annexation of the Mexican people, who could not easily be assimilated.

but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war, many Whigs fearing that opposition would cost them politically by casting themselves as unpatriotic for not supporting the war effort.<ref>In January 1848, the Whigs won a House procedural vote attacking Polk in an amendment to a resolution praising Major General Taylor for his service in a "war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States". See [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?hlaw:1:./temp/~ammem_UWhq::@@@mdb=mcc,gottscho,detr,nfor,wpa,aap,cwar,bbpix,cowellbib,calbkbib,consrvbib,bdsbib,dag,fsaall,gmd,pan,vv,presp,varstg,suffrg,nawbib,horyd,wtc,toddbib,mgw,ncr,ngp,musdibib,hlaw,papr,lhbumbib,rbpebib,lbcoll,alad,hh,aaodyssey,magbell,bbcards,dcm,raelbib,runyon,dukesm,lomaxbib,mtj,gottlieb,aep,qlt,coolbib,fpnas,aasm,scsm,denn,relpet,amss,aaeo,mffbib,afc911bib,mjm,mnwp,rbcmillerbib,molden,ww2map,mfdipbib,afcnyebib,klpmap,hawp,omhbib,rbaapcbib,mal,ncpsbib,ncpm,lhbprbib,ftvbib,afcreed,aipn,cwband,flwpabib,wpapos,cmns,psbib,pin,coplandbib,cola,tccc,curt,mharendt,lhbcbbib,eaa,haybib,mesnbib,fine,cwnyhs,svybib,mmorse,afcwwgbib,mymhiwebib,uncall,afcwip,mtaft,manz,llstbib,fawbib,berl,fmuever,cdn,upboverbib,mussm,cic,afcpearl,awh,awhbib,sgp,wright,lhbtnbib,afcesnbib,hurstonbib,mreynoldsbib,spaldingbib,sgproto  ''House Journal,'' 30th Session (1848) pp.183-184] The resolution, however, died in committee.</ref> In the House, anti-slavery Whigs led by [[John Quincy Adams]] voted against the war; among Democrats, Senator [[John C. Calhoun]] was the most notable opponent of the war, because it implied the annexation of the Mexican people, who could not easily be assimilated.

By the summer of 1846, American forces under General [[Stephen W. Kearny]] had captured New Mexico. Meanwhile, Army captain [[John C. Frémont]] led settlers in northern California to overthrow the Mexican garrison in Sonoma. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande, although Polk did not reinforce his troops there. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as generals Zachary Taylor and [[Winfield Scott]] destroyed all resistance. Scott captured Mexico City in September of 1847, and Taylor won a series of victories in Northern Mexico. Even after these battles, Mexico did not surrender until 1848, when they agreed to peace terms set out by Polk.

By the summer of 1846, American forces under General [[Stephen W. Kearny]] had captured New Mexico. Meanwhile, Army captain [[John C. Frémont]] led settlers in northern California to overthrow the Mexican garrison in Sonoma. General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande, although Polk did not reinforce his troops there. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as generals Zachary Taylor and [[Winfield Scott]] destroyed all resistance. Scott captured Mexico City in September 1847, and Taylor won a series of victories in Northern Mexico. Even after these battles, Mexico did not surrender until 1848, when they agreed to peace terms set out by Polk.

Polk sent diplomat [[Nicholas Trist]] to negotiate with the Mexicans. Lack of progress prompted the President to order Trist to return to the United States, but the diplomat ignored the instructions and stayed in Mexico to continue bargaining. Trist successfully negotiated the [[Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1  million square kilometers) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, whilst that of the United States increased by a third. California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming were all included in the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the [[Nueces River]] and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million. The war claimed less than 20,000 American casualties but over 50,000 Mexican casualties. It had cost the United States nearly $100 million. Finally, the [[Wilmot Proviso]] injected the issue of slavery in the new territories, even though Polk had insisted to other congressmen and in his diary that this had never been a war goal.  

Polk sent diplomat [[Nicholas Trist]] to negotiate with the Mexicans. Lack of progress prompted the President to order Trist to return to the United States, but the diplomat ignored the instructions and stayed in Mexico to continue bargaining. Trist successfully negotiated the [[Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1  million square kilometers) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, whilst that of the United States increased by a third. California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming were all included in the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the [[Nueces River]] and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million. The war claimed less than 20,000 American casualties but over 50,000 Mexican casualties. It had cost the United States nearly $100 million. Finally, the [[Wilmot Proviso]] injected the issue of slavery in the new territories, even though Polk had insisted to other congressmen and in his diary that this had never been a war goal.  

[[Image:Polk3.jpg|right|thumb|270px]]

[[Image:Polk3.jpg|right|thumb|270px]]

* Bergeron, Paul H. ''The Presidency of James K. Polk''. 1986. [http://www.amazon.com/Presidency-James-K-Polk-American/dp/0700603190/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195824762&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]  

* Bergeron, Paul H. ''The Presidency of James K. Polk''. 1986. [http://www.amazon.com/Presidency-James-K-Polk-American/dp/0700603190/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1195824762&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]  

*  Borneman, Walter R.  ''Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America'' (2008), standard scholarly biography. ISBN: 978-1-4000-6560-8

*  Borneman, Walter R.  ''Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America'' (2008), standard scholarly biography. ISBN 978-1-4000-6560-8

* Dusinberre, William. ''Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk''. 2003. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103963137 online edition]

* Dusinberre, William. ''Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk''. 2003. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103963137 online edition]

* Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse''.  (2001).  

* Haynes, Sam W. ''James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse''.  (2001).  

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