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== '''New England Colonies''' ==

== New England Colonies ==

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Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders. Unlike the cash-crop oriented plantations of the Chesapeake region, the Puritan economy was based on the efforts of individual farmers, who harvested enough crops to feed themselves and their families and a surplus to trade for goods they could not produce themselves. There was a generally higher standard of living in New England than in the Chesapeake. Along with farming growth, New England became an important mercantile and shipbuilding center, often serving as the hub for trading between the South and Europe.

Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders. Unlike the cash-crop oriented plantations of the Chesapeake region, the Puritan economy was based on the efforts of individual farmers, who harvested enough crops to feed themselves and their families and a surplus to trade for goods they could not produce themselves. There was a generally higher standard of living in New England than in the Chesapeake. Along with farming growth, New England became an important mercantile and shipbuilding center, often serving as the hub for trading between the South and Europe.

== '''Middle Colonies''' ==

== Middle Colonies ==

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The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Delaware]], were characterized by a large degree of diversity—religious, political, economic, and ethnic.  Many Dutch and Protestant Irish immigrants settled in these areas, as well as in [[Long Island]] and [[Connecticut]]. The Germans, called "[[Pennsylvania Dutch]]," were included in this emigration.

The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Delaware]], were characterized by a large degree of diversity—religious, political, economic, and ethnic.  Many Dutch and Protestant Irish immigrants settled in these areas, as well as in [[Long Island]] and [[Connecticut]]. The Germans, called "[[Pennsylvania Dutch]]," were included in this emigration.

===Mid-Atlantic Region===  

===Mid-Atlantic Region===

Unlike New England, the Mid-Atlantic Region gained much of its population from new immigration, and by 1750, the combined populations of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], and [[Pennsylvania]] had reached nearly 300,000 people. By 1750, about 60,000 [[Scots-Irish]] and 50,000 [[German Americans|Germans]] came to live in British North America, many of them settling in the Mid-Atlantic Region. [[William Penn]], the man who founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1682, attracted an influx of [[Quakers]] and other immigrants with his policies of religious liberty and freehold ownership. "Freehold" meant that farmers owned their land free and clear of leases. The first major influx of immigrants came mainly from Ireland and consisted of Scots-Irish [[Church of Scotland|Presbyterians]]. The second major immigration came with Germans trying to escape the religious conflicts and declining economic opportunities in Germany and Switzerland.  

Unlike New England, the Mid-Atlantic Region gained much of its population from new immigration, and by 1750, the combined populations of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], and [[Pennsylvania]] had reached nearly 300,000 people. By 1750, about 60,000 [[Scots-Irish]] and 50,000 [[German Americans|Germans]] came to live in British North America, many of them settling in the Mid-Atlantic Region. [[William Penn]], the man who founded the colony of Pennsylvania in 1682, attracted an influx of [[Quakers]] and other immigrants with his policies of religious liberty and freehold ownership. "Freehold" meant that farmers owned their land free and clear of leases. The first major influx of immigrants came mainly from Ireland and consisted of Scots-Irish [[Church of Scotland|Presbyterians]]. The second major immigration came with Germans trying to escape the religious conflicts and declining economic opportunities in Germany and Switzerland.  

Laborers stood at the bottom of seaport society. These poor people worked on the docks unloading inbound vessels and loading outbound vessels with wheat, corn, and flaxseed. Many of these were African American; some were free while others were enslaved. In 1750, blacks made up about 10 percent of the population of New York and Philadelphia. Hundreds of seamen, some who were African American, worked as sailors on merchant ships.

Laborers stood at the bottom of seaport society. These poor people worked on the docks unloading inbound vessels and loading outbound vessels with wheat, corn, and flaxseed. Many of these were African American; some were free while others were enslaved. In 1750, blacks made up about 10 percent of the population of New York and Philadelphia. Hundreds of seamen, some who were African American, worked as sailors on merchant ships.

== '''Southern Colonies''' ==

== Southern Colonies ==

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[[File:Ec$1800.jpg|thumb|400px|Estimated income in constant 1840 dollars. Source: Alice Jones, ''Wealth of a Nation to Be'' (1980); Susan B. Carter et al. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States'' (2006) vol 3.]]

[[File:Ec$1800.jpg|thumb|400px|Estimated income in constant 1840 dollars. Source: Alice Jones, ''Wealth of a Nation to Be'' (1980); Susan B. Carter et al. ''The Historical Statistics of the United States'' (2006) vol 3.]]

The great majority of people throughout the colonial era were farmers and their income was not cash but the value of the crops and animals produced on farms, and mostly consumed by the family. The estimates are based on inventories of estates when people died. Most people lived in poverty--with very few possessions such as a small stock of clothes, a shack to live in, a few household goods--and land and animals. In terms of wealth the per capita wealth of Americans in 1774 was £37.4 ($6700 in 2009 dollars); per adult male £172 ($30,700); and per white adult male £218 ($39,000).<ref>Alice Hanson Jones, ''Wealth of a Nation to Be'' (1980)</ref>

The great majority of people throughout the colonial era were farmers and their income was not cash but the value of the crops and animals produced on farms, and mostly consumed by the family. The estimates are based on inventories of estates when people died. Most people lived in poverty—with very few possessions such as a small stock of clothes, a shack to live in, a few household goods—and land and animals. In terms of wealth the per capita wealth of Americans in 1774 was £37.4 ($6700 in 2009 dollars); per adult male £172 ($30,700); and per white adult male £218 ($39,000).<ref>Alice Hanson Jones, ''Wealth of a Nation to Be'' (1980)</ref>

==Literature==

==Literature==

Colonial American literature is perhaps the most vibrant field in American literary studies today. In the last decade an explosion of anthologies designed to make widely available a broad range of non-canonical writings produced in and about Great Britain's colonies in the Western hemisphere has provided teachers and scholars with important new tools. The explosion has been driven partly by the identity-based recuperation movements of the 1970s and 1980s, partly by a new awareness of the importance of texts circulated in manuscript or newspapers rather than in book form, and partly by dissatisfaction with the predominant Puritan origins narrative and a swelling interest in transnationalism. New anthologies include Myra Jehlen and Michael Warner's ''The English Literatures of America, 1580–1800'' (Routledge, 1996), Vincent Carretta's ''Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the Eighteenth Century'' (Lexington, Ky., 1996), Sharon M. Harris's ''Early American Women Writers to 1800'' (Oxford, 1996), and ''Thomas W. Krise's Caribbeana: An Anthology of English Literature of the West Indies, 1657–1777'' (Chicago, 1999), Susan Castillo and Ivy Schweitzer, ''The Literatures of Colonial America: An Anthology'' (Oxford, 2001) Carla Muford's ''Early American Writings'' (Oxford 2002), and Susan Castillo's, ''Colonial Encounters in New World Writing, 1500–1786: Performing America'' (Routledge, 2006). Add in the University of Massachusetts Press series on native writers and scholars have made readily available a vast array of once obscure English-language works. Some of these new volumes represent an effort by colonialists to catch up to the rest of the field of Americanist scholarship, providing the pre-literary history to contemporary Caribbean or African American literature. In an important sense, however, colonialists occupy a unique position among Americanists. At a moment when many scholars are rejecting nationalist narratives of literary history, which they view as the intellectual equivalent of isolationism in a world increasingly committed to globalization, students of colonial American literature rightly claim a pre-national vantage point. A transnational approach to colonial literature has the attractive features of being both intellectually sound and trendy.<ref> Sandra M. Gustafson, "The Americas in Writing," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2003 60(1): 207-213. ISSN: 0043-5597   

Colonial American literature is perhaps the most vibrant field in American literary studies today. In the last decade an explosion of anthologies designed to make widely available a broad range of non-canonical writings produced in and about Great Britain's colonies in the Western hemisphere has provided teachers and scholars with important new tools. The explosion has been driven partly by the identity-based recuperation movements of the 1970s and 1980s, partly by a new awareness of the importance of texts circulated in manuscript or newspapers rather than in book form, and partly by dissatisfaction with the predominant Puritan origins narrative and a swelling interest in transnationalism. New anthologies include Myra Jehlen and Michael Warner's ''The English Literatures of America, 1580–1800'' (Routledge, 1996), Vincent Carretta's ''Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the Eighteenth Century'' (Lexington, Ky., 1996), Sharon M. Harris's ''Early American Women Writers to 1800'' (Oxford, 1996), and ''Thomas W. Krise's Caribbeana: An Anthology of English Literature of the West Indies, 1657–1777'' (Chicago, 1999), Susan Castillo and Ivy Schweitzer, ''The Literatures of Colonial America: An Anthology'' (Oxford, 2001) Carla Muford's ''Early American Writings'' (Oxford 2002), and Susan Castillo's, ''Colonial Encounters in New World Writing, 1500–1786: Performing America'' (Routledge, 2006). Add in the University of Massachusetts Press series on native writers and scholars have made readily available a vast array of once obscure English-language works. Some of these new volumes represent an effort by colonialists to catch up to the rest of the field of Americanist scholarship, providing the pre-literary history to contemporary Caribbean or African American literature. In an important sense, however, colonialists occupy a unique position among Americanists. At a moment when many scholars are rejecting nationalist narratives of literary history, which they view as the intellectual equivalent of isolationism in a world increasingly committed to globalization, students of colonial American literature rightly claim a pre-national vantage point. A transnational approach to colonial literature has the attractive features of being both intellectually sound and trendy.<ref>Sandra M. Gustafson, "The Americas in Writing," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 2003 60(1): 207-213. ISSN: 0043-5597   

Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]</ref>

Fulltext: [[History Cooperative]]</ref>

* [[Colonial military history]]

* [[Colonial military history]]

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

===Reference===

===References===

* Cooke, Jacob Ernest, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies'' (3 vol 1993), comprehensive coverage with Spanish, French and Dutch receiving equal attention with British

* Cooke, Jacob Ernest, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies'' (3 vol 1993), comprehensive coverage with Spanish, French and Dutch receiving equal attention with British

===Scholarly secondary sources===

===Scholarly secondary sources===

* Adams, James Truslow. ''The Founding of New England,'' (1921)[http://www.dinsdoc.com/adams-1-0a.htm online edition]

* Adams, James Truslow. ''The Founding of New England,'' (1921)[http://www.dinsdoc.com/adams-1-0a.htm online edition]

*  Anderson, Virginia DeJohn. ''Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Creatures-Empire-Domestic-Animals-Transformed/dp/0195304462/ref=sr_1_11/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192998497&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]

*  Anderson, Virginia DeJohn. ''Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Creatures-Empire-Domestic-Animals-Transformed/dp/0195304462/ref=sr_1_11/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192998497&sr=1-11 excerpt and text search]

* Andrews, Charles M. "Colonial Commerce," ''American Historical Review,'' 20#1 (October 1914) pp. 43-63 [http://www.dinsdoc.com/andrews-1.htm online]

* Andrews, Charles M. "Colonial Commerce," ''American Historical Review,'' 20#1 (October 1914) pp.&nbsp;43–63 [http://www.dinsdoc.com/andrews-1.htm online]

* Andrews, Charles M. ''Our Earliest Colonial Settlements: Their Diversities of Origin and Later Characteristics'' (1933) briefly discusses Virginia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Maryland) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6552109 online edition]

* Andrews, Charles M. ''Our Earliest Colonial Settlements: Their Diversities of Origin and Later Characteristics'' (1933) briefly discusses Virginia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Maryland) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6552109 online edition]

* Andrews, Charles M. ''Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689.. (1904) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55413362 online edition]

* Andrews, Charles M. ''Colonial Self-Government, 1652-1689.. (1904) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55413362 online edition]

* Kulikoff, Allan. ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/from-british-peasants-to-colonial-american-farmers-by-allan-kulikoff.jsp online edition]

* Kulikoff, Allan. ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/from-british-peasants-to-colonial-american-farmers-by-allan-kulikoff.jsp online edition]

* Middleton, Richard. ''Colonial America: A History, 1565-1776'' (3rd ed 2002), 576pp [http://www.amazon.com/Colonial-America-History-1565-1776/dp/0631221417/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192997693&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Middleton, Richard. ''Colonial America: A History, 1565-1776'' (3rd ed 2002), 576pp [http://www.amazon.com/Colonial-America-History-1565-1776/dp/0631221417/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192997693&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Morgan, Edmund S. ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975) Pulitzer Prize[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101062594 online edition]

* Morgan, Edmund S. ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975) Pulitzer Prize [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101062594 online edition]

* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century.'' 3 vol (1904-07) [http://dinsdoc.com/osgood-8-0a.htm  online edition]

* Osgood, Herbert L. ''The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century.'' 3 vol (1904-07) [http://dinsdoc.com/osgood-8-0a.htm  online edition]

* Tate, Thad W. ''Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century'' (1980) [http://www.amazon.com/Chesapeake-Seventeenth-Century-Thad-Tate/dp/0393009564/ref=sr_1_23/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192998781&sr=1-23 excerpt and text search]

* Tate, Thad W. ''Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century'' (1980) [http://www.amazon.com/Chesapeake-Seventeenth-Century-Thad-Tate/dp/0393009564/ref=sr_1_23/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192998781&sr=1-23 excerpt and text search]

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