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Throughout history, Ancient Egyptian religion was overwhelmingly polytheistic (the worship of multiple gods). But they had several contradictory Creation stories.

Throughout history, Ancient Egyptian religion was overwhelmingly polytheistic (the worship of multiple gods). But they had several contradictory Creation stories.

1) Ra. In the Old Kingdom, the Egyptian Creator-God, Holy Ra, was the dominant god. Egyptian mythology claimed that Ra had created himself out of the Primordial Water, and thus created the first Order over Chaos. But Ra, lonely at being the only intellect in existence, cried, and humans emerged from the tears. Ra then created the other gods to keep him company and help him govern the humans, which he did until a human rebellion forced him to appoint a half-man, half-god (the Pharaoh) to rule on his behalf. The cult of Ra spread throughout Egypt and Nubia throughout the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and merged with other gods, taking on their aspects (Ra-Khepri, Ra-Herakhty, etc.).

1) Ra. In the Old Kingdom, the Egyptian Creator-God, Holy Ra, was the dominant god. Egyptian mythology claimed that Ra had created himself out of the Primordial Water, and thus created the first Order over Chaos. But Ra, lonely at being the only intellect in existence, cried, and humans emerged from the tears. Ra then created the other gods to keep him company and help him govern the humans, which he did until a human rebellion forced him to appoint a half-man, half-god (the Pharaoh) to rule on his behalf. The cult of Ra spread throughout Egypt and Nubia throughout the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and merged with other gods, taking on their aspects (Ra-Khepri, Ra-Herakhty, etc).

2) Osiris. This version of the Ra myth contradicts the above version. In this myth, Ra creates the universe but does not create humans, instead making other lesser gods to serve him. Favourite among these was Osiris, and when humans were eventually created - by accident - Ra gave Osiris control over them. But Osiris' brother, Seth, tricked Osiris and killed him (similar to the story of Cain and Abel! There is even a Seth in Genesis - maybe the Egyptians meant the actual story of Cain and Abel but got one of the names wrong). Osiris' wife Isis put his body back together and their son Horus fought Seth, and won.

2) Osiris. This version of the Ra myth contradicts the above version. In this myth, Ra creates the universe but does not create humans, instead making other lesser gods to serve him. Favourite among these was Osiris, and when humans were eventually created - by accident - Ra gave Osiris control over them. But Osiris' brother, Seth, tricked Osiris and killed him (similar to the story of Cain and Abel! There is even a Seth in Genesis - maybe the Egyptians meant the actual story of Cain and Abel but got one of the names wrong). Osiris' wife Isis put his body back together and their son Horus fought Seth, and won.

All, and none.

All, and none.

Technology in the Copper and Bronze Ages was largely the same across the civilised world. Although ironworking was practiced by some societies (such as the Hatti, or Hittites), the iron produced was brittle and largely used for ceremonial, not practical, purposes. In cases where a particular technology was not used - such as wheels not being used in Egypt - this was not due to a lack of knowledge but a lack of practical application. The Egyptians were aware of the concept of the wheel (they used potters' wheels, for instance, and tomb models of carts have been found), it was simply that wheels were highly impractical at the time as they were fragile and liable to sink into the sand. Therefore, the majority of transport was on boats, with land transport consisting of pack-animals and sledges hauled by labourers. Given, therefore, the technological similarity of ancient civilisations, we cannot use that as an answer.

Technology in the Copper and Bronze Ages was largely the same across the civilised world. Although ironworking was practiced by some societies (such as the Hatti, or Hittites), the iron produced was brittle and largely used for ceremonial, not practical, purposes. In cases where a particular technology was not used - such as wheels not being used in Egypt - this was not due to a lack of knowledge but a lack of practical application. The Egyptians were aware of the concept of the wheel (they used potters' wheels, for instance, and tomb models of carts have been found), it was simply that wheels were highly impractical at the time as they were fragile and liable to sink into the sand. Therefore the majority of transport was on boats, with land transport consisting of pack-animals and sledges hauled by labourers. Given, therefore, the technological similarity of ancient civilisations, we cannot use that as an answer.

Law is a concept which emerged long before any of the civilisations discussed in the Lecture. Hunter-gatherer societies still exist, and they have laws against murder, incest, and other similar things which were outlawed in ancient societies and which we still prohibit today. There is strong evidence for law emerging long before civilisation, as Almighty God gave laws to Adam and Eve (which they broke). As ancient societies did not generally follow Biblical law, their laws cannot be considered good or important.

Law is a concept which emerged long before any of the civilisations discussed in the Lecture. Hunter-gatherer societies still exist, and they have laws against murder, incest, and other similar things which were outlawed in ancient societies and which we still prohibit today. There is strong evidence for law emerging long before civilisation, as Almighty God gave laws to Adam and Eve (which they broke). As ancient societies did not generally follow Biblical law, their laws cannot be considered good or important.

Language is inconsequential to the success or failure of any society, ancient or modern. All forms of writing use arbitrary symbols which have no meaning on their own - rather, they have meaning because of collective agreement. The ancient cuneiform and hieroglyph languages look incomprehensible to us, but the modern Latin alphabet used by English-speakers is equally incomprehensible to a native Chinese. Speech is, for obvious reasons, much more difficult to assess, as there are no living speakers of ancient languages. Experts ''think'' they can approximate the pronunciation, but cannot be sure despite what some adherents claim.  

Language is inconsequential to the success or failure of any society, ancient or modern. All forms of writing use arbitrary symbols which have no meaning on their own - rather, they have meaning because of collective agreement. The ancient cuneiform and hieroglyph languages look incomprehensible to us, but the modern Latin alphabet used by English-speakers is equally incomprehensible to a native Chinese. Speech is, for obvious reasons, much more difficult to assess, as there are no living speakers of ancient languages. Experts ''think'' they can approximate the pronounciation, but cannot be sure despite what some adherents claim.  

Geography - or more specifically, geographical determinism - is a debated issue in history. For example, some geographers and historians point to the Nile River as a unique place for a society to emerge and flourish, due to its fertility from annual flooding (before the 1950s), and natural borders in the form of deserts, sea, and mountains to the south. But if we consider that similarly impressive societies emerged along the Tigris and Euphrates - as the Lecture says - and if we also consider that Egypt was invaded and fell into political disunity several times in its history, we might question just how important Egypt's geography was.

Geography - or more specifically, geographical determinism - is a debated issue in history. For example, some geographers and historians point to the Nile River as a unique place for a society to emerge and flourish, due to its fertility from annual flooding (before the 1950s), and natural borders in the form of deserts, sea, and mountains to the south. But if we consider that similarly impressive societies emerged along the Tigris and Euphrates - as the Lecture says - and if we also consider that Egypt was invaded and fell into political disunity several times in its history, we might question just how important Egypt's geography was.