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'''''Kubla Khan''''' is a [[poem]] by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], completed in 1797 and published in ''Christabel, Kubla Khan, and the Pains of Sleep'' in 1816. According to Coleridge's Preface to ''Kubla Khan'', the poem was composed one night after he experienced an [[opium]] influenced dream after reading a work describing the Tartar king [[Kublai Khan]]. Upon waking, he set about writing lines of poetry that came to him from the dream until he was interrupted by a person from Porlock . The poem could not be completed according to its original 200-300 line plan as the interruption caused him to forget the lines. Although the specific details of Coleridge's Preface are debatable, he most likely composed ''Kubla Khan'' during autumn 1797 but left unpublished and kept for private readings until 1816 when, on the prompting by [[Lord Byron|George Gordon Byron]], 6th Baron Byron George Gordon Byron , it was made available to the public.

'''''Kubla Khan''''' is a [[poem]] by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], completed in 1797 and published in ''Christabel, Kubla Khan, and the Pains of Sleep'' in 1816. According to Coleridge's Preface to ''Kubla Khan'', the poem was composed one night after he experienced an [[opium]] influenced dream after reading a work describing the Tartar king [[Kublai Khan]]. Upon waking, he set about writing lines of poetry that came to him from the dream until he was interrupted by a person from Porlock . The poem could not be completed according to its original 200-300 line plan as the interruption caused him to forget the lines. Although the specific details of Coleridge's Preface are debatable, he most likely composed ''Kubla Khan'' during autumn 1797 but left unpublished and kept for private readings until 1816 when, on the prompting by [[Lord Byron|George Gordon Byron]], 6th Baron Byron George Gordon Byron, it was made available to the public.

The poem is different in style and form from other poems composed by Coleridge. While incomplete and subtitled a "fragment", its language is highly stylized with a strong emphasis on sound devices that change between the poem's original two stanza s. The first stanza of the poem describes Khan's pleasure dome built alongside a sacred river fed by a powerful fountain. The second stanza of the poem is the narrator's response to the power and effects of a Habesha people Abyssinian maid's song, which enraptures him but leaves him unable to act on her inspiration unless he could hear her once again. Together, they form a comparison of creative power that does not work with nature and creative power that is harmonious with nature.

The poem is different in style and form from other poems composed by Coleridge. While incomplete and subtitled a "fragment", its language is highly stylized with a strong emphasis on sound devices that change between the poem's original two stanza s. The first stanza of the poem describes Khan's pleasure dome built alongside a sacred river fed by a powerful fountain. The second stanza of the poem is the narrator's response to the power and effects of a Habesha people Abyssinian maid's song, which enraptures him but leaves him unable to act on her inspiration unless he could hear her once again. Together, they form a comparison of creative power that does not work with nature and creative power that is harmonious with nature.

The thoughts expressed in Coleridge's letter date ''Kubla Khan'' to October 1797, but two alternatives have been postulated by Coleridge's biographers: May 1798 and October 1799. These were both times he was in the area, and, by 1799, Coleridge was able to read  Robert Southey 's ''Thalaba the Destroyer'', a work which also drew on Purchas's work. It is possible that he merely edited the poem during those time periods, and there is little evidence to suggest that Coleridge lied about the opium-induced experience at Ash Farm.<ref>Holmes 1989 pp. 167-</ref>

The thoughts expressed in Coleridge's letter date ''Kubla Khan'' to October 1797, but two alternatives have been postulated by Coleridge's biographers: May 1798 and October 1799. These were both times he was in the area, and, by 1799, Coleridge was able to read  Robert Southey 's ''Thalaba the Destroyer'', a work which also drew on Purchas's work. It is possible that he merely edited the poem during those time periods, and there is little evidence to suggest that Coleridge lied about the opium-induced experience at Ash Farm.<ref>Holmes 1989 pp. 167-</ref>

The work was set aside until 1815 when Coleridge compiled manuscripts of his poems for a collection titled ''Sibylline Leaves''.<ref>Holmes 1998 p. 387</ref> The poem remained buried in obscurity until a 10 April 1816 meeting between Coleridge and George Gordon Byron , a younger poet, who persuaded Coleridge to publish ''Christabel'' and ''Kubla Khan'' as fragments. Leigh Hunt, another poet, witnessed the event and wrote, "He recited his 'Kubla Khan' one morning to Lord Byron, in his Lordship's house in Piccadilly, when I happened to be in another room. I remember the other's coming away from him, highly struck with his poem, and saying how wonderfully he talked. This was the impression of everyone who heard him."<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 426</ref> Byron arranged for John Murray  to publish the poem with ''Christabel'' and "The Pains of Sleep" along with prefaces to the works. A contract was drawn up on 12 April 1816 for 80 pounds.<ref>Holmes 1998 p. 426</ref>  Charles Lamb , poet and friend of Coleridge, witnessed Coleridge's work towards publishing the poem and wrote to Wordsworth: "Coleridge is printing Xtabel by Lord Byron's recommendation to Murray, with what he calls a vision of Kubla Khan – which said vision he repeats so enchantingly that it irradiates & brings Heaven & Elysian bowers into my parlour while he sings or says it".<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 429</ref> Coleridge stayed in London to work on the poem and also to try and break his opium addiction.. However, not everyone was happy with the idea of the poem's being published, as Coleridge's wife, who was not with him, wrote to Thomas Poole, "Oh! when will he ever give his friends anything but pain? he has been so unwise as to publish his fragments of 'Christabel' & 'Koula-Khan' ... we were all sadly vexed when we read the advertisement of these things."<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 431</ref>

The work was set aside until 1815 when Coleridge compiled manuscripts of his poems for a collection titled ''Sibylline Leaves''.<ref>Holmes 1998 p. 387</ref> The poem remained buried in obscurity until a 10 April 1816 meeting between Coleridge and George Gordon Byron, a younger poet, who persuaded Coleridge to publish ''Christabel'' and ''Kubla Khan'' as fragments. Leigh Hunt, another poet, witnessed the event and wrote, "He recited his 'Kubla Khan' one morning to Lord Byron, in his Lordship's house in Piccadilly, when I happened to be in another room. I remember the other's coming away from him, highly struck with his poem, and saying how wonderfully he talked. This was the impression of everyone who heard him."<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 426</ref> Byron arranged for John Murray  to publish the poem with ''Christabel'' and "The Pains of Sleep" along with prefaces to the works. A contract was drawn up on 12 April 1816 for 80 pounds.<ref>Holmes 1998 p. 426</ref>  Charles Lamb, poet and friend of Coleridge, witnessed Coleridge's work towards publishing the poem and wrote to Wordsworth: "Coleridge is printing Xtabel by Lord Byron's recommendation to Murray, with what he calls a vision of Kubla Khan – which said vision he repeats so enchantingly that it irradiates & brings Heaven & Elysian bowers into my parlour while he sings or says it".<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 429</ref> Coleridge stayed in London to work on the poem and also to try and break his opium addiction.. However, not everyone was happy with the idea of the poem's being published, as Coleridge's wife, who was not with him, wrote to Thomas Poole, "Oh! when will he ever give his friends anything but pain? he has been so unwise as to publish his fragments of 'Christabel' & 'Koula-Khan' ... we were all sadly vexed when we read the advertisement of these things."<ref>Holmes 1998 qtd. p. 431</ref>

The collection of poems was published 25 May 1816,<ref>Holmes 1998 pp. 434</ref> and Coleridge included "A Fragment" as a subtitle to the 54 line version of the poem to defend against criticism of the poem's incomplete nature.<ref>Ashton 1997 pp. 112-113</ref> The original published version of the work was separated into 2 stanzas, with the first ending at line 30.<ref>Yarlott 1967 p. 145</ref> Printed with ''Kubla Khan'' was a preface that claimed an opium induced dream provided Coleridge the lines.<ref name="Sisman p. 417">Sisman 2006 p. 417</ref> The poem was printed four times in Coleridge's life, with the final printing in his ''Poetical Works'' of 1834.<ref>Mays 2001 p. 511</ref> In the final work, Coleridge added the expanded subtitle "Or, A Vision in a Dream. A Fragment". In some later anthologies of Coleridge's poetry, the Preface is dropped along with the subtitle denoting its fragmentary and dream nature. Sometimes, the Preface is included in modern editions but lacks both the first and final paragraphs.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 39-40</ref>

The collection of poems was published 25 May 1816,<ref>Holmes 1998 pp. 434</ref> and Coleridge included "A Fragment" as a subtitle to the 54 line version of the poem to defend against criticism of the poem's incomplete nature.<ref>Ashton 1997 pp. 112-113</ref> The original published version of the work was separated into 2 stanzas, with the first ending at line 30.<ref>Yarlott 1967 p. 145</ref> Printed with ''Kubla Khan'' was a preface that claimed an opium induced dream provided Coleridge the lines.<ref name="Sisman p. 417">Sisman 2006 p. 417</ref> The poem was printed four times in Coleridge's life, with the final printing in his ''Poetical Works'' of 1834.<ref>Mays 2001 p. 511</ref> In the final work, Coleridge added the expanded subtitle "Or, A Vision in a Dream. A Fragment". In some later anthologies of Coleridge's poetry, the Preface is dropped along with the subtitle denoting its fragmentary and dream nature. Sometimes, the Preface is included in modern editions but lacks both the first and final paragraphs.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 39-40</ref>

==Style==

==Style==

The poem according to Coleridge's account, is a fragment of what it should have been, amounting to what he was able to jot down from memory: 54 lines.<ref>Sisman 2006 p. 195</ref> Originally, his dream included between 200 and 300 lines, but he was only able to compose the first 30 before he was interrupted. The second stanza is not necessarily part of the original dream and refers to the dream in the past tense.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 43-44</ref> The rhythm of the poem, like its themes and images, is different from other poems Coleridge wrote during the time, and it is organised in a structure similar to 18th-century odes. The poem relies on many sound-based techniques, including cognate variation and chiasmus .<ref>Mays 2001 pp. 509-512</ref> In particular, the poem emphasises the use of the "æ" sound and similar modifications to the standard "a" sound to make the poem sound Asian. Its rhyme scheme found in the first seven lines is repeated in the first seven lines of the second stanza. There is a heavy use of assonance , the reuse of vowel sounds, and a reliance on alliteration, repetition of the first sound of a word, within the poem including the first line: "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan". The stressed sounds, "Xan", "du", "Ku", "Khan", contain assonance in their use of the sounds a-u-u-a, have two rhyming syllables with "Xan" and "Khan", and employ alliteration with the name "Kubla Khan" and the reuse of "d" sounds in "Xanadu" and "did". To pull the line together, the "i" sound of "In" is repeated in "did". Later lines do not contain the same amount of symmetry but do rely on assonance and rhymes throughout. The only word that has no true connection to another word is "dome" except in its use of a "d" sound. Though the lines are interconnected, the rhyme scheme and line lengths are irregular.<ref>Schneider 1967 pp. 88-91</ref>

The poem according to Coleridge's account, is a fragment of what it should have been, amounting to what he was able to jot down from memory: 54 lines.<ref>Sisman 2006 p. 195</ref> Originally, his dream included between 200 and 300 lines, but he was only able to compose the first 30 before he was interrupted. The second stanza is not necessarily part of the original dream and refers to the dream in the past tense.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 43-44</ref> The rhythm of the poem, like its themes and images, is different from other poems Coleridge wrote during the time, and it is organised in a structure similar to 18th-century odes. The poem relies on many sound-based techniques, including cognate variation and chiasmus .<ref>Mays 2001 pp. 509-512</ref> In particular, the poem emphasises the use of the "æ" sound and similar modifications to the standard "a" sound to make the poem sound Asian. Its rhyme scheme found in the first seven lines is repeated in the first seven lines of the second stanza. There is a heavy use of assonance, the reuse of vowel sounds, and a reliance on alliteration, repetition of the first sound of a word, within the poem including the first line: "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan". The stressed sounds, "Xan", "du", "Ku", "Khan", contain assonance in their use of the sounds a-u-u-a, have two rhyming syllables with "Xan" and "Khan", and employ alliteration with the name "Kubla Khan" and the reuse of "d" sounds in "Xanadu" and "did". To pull the line together, the "i" sound of "In" is repeated in "did". Later lines do not contain the same amount of symmetry but do rely on assonance and rhymes throughout. The only word that has no true connection to another word is "dome" except in its use of a "d" sound. Though the lines are interconnected, the rhyme scheme and line lengths are irregular.<ref>Schneider 1967 pp. 88-91</ref>

The first lines of the poem follow iambic tetrameter with the initial stanza relying on heavy stresses. The lines of the second stanza incorporate lighter stresses to increase the speed of the meter to separate them from the hammer-like rhythm of the previous lines.<ref name="Yarlott p. 129">Yarlott 1967 p. 129</ref> There also is strong a break following line 36 in the poem that provides for a second stanza, and there is a transition in narration from a third person narration about Kubla Khan into the poet discussing his role as a poet.<ref>Mays 2001 pp. 509-510, 514</ref> Without the Preface, the two stanzas form two different poems that have some relationship to each other but lack unity.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 42-43</ref> This is not to say they would be two different poems, since the technique of having separate parts that respond to another is used in the genre of the odal hymn , used in the poetry of other Romantic poets including John Keats or Percy Bysshe Shelley .<ref>Bate 1968 p. 78</ref> However, the odal hymn as used by others has a stronger unity among its parts, and Coleridge believed in writing poetry that was unified organically.<ref>Singh 1994 p. 48}}</ref> It is possible that Coleridge was displeased by the lack of unity in the poem and added a note about the structure to the Preface to explain his thoughts.<ref>Roe 2001 p.265}}</ref> In terms of genre, the poem is a dream poem and related to works describing visions common to the Romantic poets. ''Kubla Khan'' is also related to the genre of fragmentary poetry, with internal images reinforcing the idea of fragmentation that is found within the form of the poem.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 42, 45-47</ref> The poem's self-proclaimed fragmentary nature combined with Coleridge's warning about the poem in the preface turns ''Kubla Khan'' into an "anti-poem", a work that lacks structure, order, and leaves the reader confused instead of enlightened.<ref>Fulford 2002 p. 54</ref> However, the poem has little relation to the other fragmentary poems Coleridge wrote.<ref>Bate 1968 p. 76</ref>

The first lines of the poem follow iambic tetrameter with the initial stanza relying on heavy stresses. The lines of the second stanza incorporate lighter stresses to increase the speed of the meter to separate them from the hammer-like rhythm of the previous lines.<ref name="Yarlott p. 129">Yarlott 1967 p. 129</ref> There also is strong a break following line 36 in the poem that provides for a second stanza, and there is a transition in narration from a third person narration about Kubla Khan into the poet discussing his role as a poet.<ref>Mays 2001 pp. 509-510, 514</ref> Without the Preface, the two stanzas form two different poems that have some relationship to each other but lack unity.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 42-43</ref> This is not to say they would be two different poems, since the technique of having separate parts that respond to another is used in the genre of the odal hymn, used in the poetry of other Romantic poets including John Keats or Percy Bysshe Shelley .<ref>Bate 1968 p. 78</ref> However, the odal hymn as used by others has a stronger unity among its parts, and Coleridge believed in writing poetry that was unified organically.<ref>Singh 1994 p. 48}}</ref> It is possible that Coleridge was displeased by the lack of unity in the poem and added a note about the structure to the Preface to explain his thoughts.<ref>Roe 2001 p.265}}</ref> In terms of genre, the poem is a dream poem and related to works describing visions common to the Romantic poets. ''Kubla Khan'' is also related to the genre of fragmentary poetry, with internal images reinforcing the idea of fragmentation that is found within the form of the poem.<ref>Perkins 2010 pp. 42, 45-47</ref> The poem's self-proclaimed fragmentary nature combined with Coleridge's warning about the poem in the preface turns ''Kubla Khan'' into an "anti-poem", a work that lacks structure, order, and leaves the reader confused instead of enlightened.<ref>Fulford 2002 p. 54</ref> However, the poem has little relation to the other fragmentary poems Coleridge wrote.<ref>Bate 1968 p. 76</ref>

==Preface==

==Preface==

:A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice! (lines 31-36)

:A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice! (lines 31-36)

The narrator turns prophetic, referring to a vision of an unidentified "Abyssinian maid" who sings of "Mount Abora". Harold Bloom suggests that this passage reveals the narrator's desire to rival Khan's ability to create with his own.<ref name="Bloom 1993 pp. 219-220">Bloom 1993 pp. 219-220</ref> The woman may also refer to Mnemosyne , the Greek personification of memory and mother of the muses , referring directly to Coleridge's claimed struggle to compose this poem from memory of a dream.

The narrator turns prophetic, referring to a vision of an unidentified "Abyssinian maid" who sings of "Mount Abora". Harold Bloom suggests that this passage reveals the narrator's desire to rival Khan's ability to create with his own.<ref name="Bloom 1993 pp. 219-220">Bloom 1993 pp. 219-220</ref> The woman may also refer to Mnemosyne, the Greek personification of memory and mother of the muses, referring directly to Coleridge's claimed struggle to compose this poem from memory of a dream.

:A damsel with a dulcimer

:A damsel with a dulcimer

:In a vision once I saw:

:In a vision once I saw:

There are many sources attributed to ''Kubla Khan'' for the style, imagery, and topic. Of the sources, Coleridge was influenced by the surrounding of Culbone Combe and its hills, gulleys, and other features including the "mystical" and "sacred" locations in the region. He admitted that he was directly influenced by Purchas's ''Pilgrimage'', but there are additional strong literary connections to other works, including John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', Samuel Johnson's ''Rasselas'', Chatterton's ''African Eclogues'', William Bartram's ''Travels through North and South Carolina'', Thomas Burnet's ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'', Mary Wollstonecraft's ''A Short Residence in Sweden'', Plato's ''Phaedrus and Ion'',<ref>Holmes 1989 p. 164</ref> Maurice's ''The History of Hindostan'', and Heliodorus's ''Aethiopian History''.<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 235, 266</ref> The poem also contains allusions to the Book of Revelation in its description of New Jerusalem and to the paradise of William Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.<ref>Ashton 1997 pp. 114-115</ref> As for specific places, the main character is Kublai Khan the Tartar king from China, the river is Alpheus in Greece and is similar to the Nile, and the Abyssinian woman sings of Mount Amara, and the caves are like those in Kashmir. Also, the name "Alph" could connect to the idea of being an alpha or original place.<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 217-219</ref> The sources used for ''Kubla Khan'' are also those used in Coleridge's ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner''.<ref>Lowes 1927 pp. 410-411</ref>

There are many sources attributed to ''Kubla Khan'' for the style, imagery, and topic. Of the sources, Coleridge was influenced by the surrounding of Culbone Combe and its hills, gulleys, and other features including the "mystical" and "sacred" locations in the region. He admitted that he was directly influenced by Purchas's ''Pilgrimage'', but there are additional strong literary connections to other works, including John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', Samuel Johnson's ''Rasselas'', Chatterton's ''African Eclogues'', William Bartram's ''Travels through North and South Carolina'', Thomas Burnet's ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'', Mary Wollstonecraft's ''A Short Residence in Sweden'', Plato's ''Phaedrus and Ion'',<ref>Holmes 1989 p. 164</ref> Maurice's ''The History of Hindostan'', and Heliodorus's ''Aethiopian History''.<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 235, 266</ref> The poem also contains allusions to the Book of Revelation in its description of New Jerusalem and to the paradise of William Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''.<ref>Ashton 1997 pp. 114-115</ref> As for specific places, the main character is Kublai Khan the Tartar king from China, the river is Alpheus in Greece and is similar to the Nile, and the Abyssinian woman sings of Mount Amara, and the caves are like those in Kashmir. Also, the name "Alph" could connect to the idea of being an alpha or original place.<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 217-219</ref> The sources used for ''Kubla Khan'' are also those used in Coleridge's ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner''.<ref>Lowes 1927 pp. 410-411</ref>

Much of the poem could have been influenced by Coleridge's opium dream or, as his friend and fellow poet Robert Southey joked, "Coleridge had dreamed he had written a poem in a dream".<ref>Doughty 1981 qtd. p. 132</ref> If Coleridge's dream did originate ideas within the poem, then the dreams are related to those experienced by contemporary opium eaters and writers, Thomas de Quincey and Charles Pierre Baudelaire. It is possible that the dream affected Coleridge's later mood and caused him to enter into a depression, influencing the ideas in his writing that followed the dream night. Of these ideas, Coleridge's emphasised the vastness of the universe and his feeling overwhelmed by how little the universe seemed to him.<ref>Doughty 1981 pp. 132-133</ref> Also, Charles Lamb provided Coleridge on 15 April 1797 with a copy of his "A Vision of Repentance", a poem that discussed a dream containing imagery similar to those in ''Kubla Khan''. The poem could have provided Coleridge with the idea of a dream poem that discusses fountains, sacredness, and even a woman singing a sorrowful song.<ref>Fruman 1971 pp. 345-346</ref> The poem's use of original names and disorganised use of action can also be attributed to an opium induced state of mind. In terms of spelling, Coleridge's printed version differs from Purchas's spelling, which refers to the Tartar ruler as "Cublai Can", and from the spelling used by Milton, "Cathaian Can".<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 211, 227</ref> His original manuscript (as reproduced above) spells the name "Cubla Khan" and the place "Xannadu".

Much of the poem could have been influenced by Coleridge's opium dream or, as his friend and fellow poet Robert Southey joked, "Coleridge had dreamed he had written a poem in a dream".<ref>Doughty 1981 qtd. p. 132</ref> If Coleridge's dream did originate ideas within the poem, then the dreams are related to those experienced by contemporary opium eaters and writers, Thomas De Quincey and Charles Pierre Baudelaire. It is possible that the dream affected Coleridge's later mood and caused him to enter into a depression, influencing the ideas in his writing that followed the dream night. Of these ideas, Coleridge's emphasised the vastness of the universe and his feeling overwhelmed by how little the universe seemed to him.<ref>Doughty 1981 pp. 132-133</ref> Also, Charles Lamb provided Coleridge on 15 April 1797 with a copy of his "A Vision of Repentance", a poem that discussed a dream containing imagery similar to those in ''Kubla Khan''. The poem could have provided Coleridge with the idea of a dream poem that discusses fountains, sacredness, and even a woman singing a sorrowful song.<ref>Fruman 1971 pp. 345-346</ref> The poem's use of original names and disorganised use of action can also be attributed to an opium induced state of mind. In terms of spelling, Coleridge's printed version differs from Purchas's spelling, which refers to the Tartar ruler as "Cublai Can", and from the spelling used by Milton, "Cathaian Can".<ref>Beer 1962 pp. 211, 227</ref> His original manuscript (as reproduced above) spells the name "Cubla Khan" and the place "Xannadu".

The Abyssinian maid is derived from many figures in Coleridge's life, including women who Coleridge admired in some way: Charlotte Brent, Catherine Clarkson, Mary Morgan, and Dorothy Wordsworth. Although Asra/Hutchinson is similar to the way Coleridge talks about the Abyssinian maid, Hutchinson was someone he met after writing ''Kubla Khan''. The person who was the closest match to the figure was Evans, the subject of Coleridge's ''Lewti''. The poem's claim that the narrator would be inspired to act if the song of the maid could be heard was a belief that Coleridge held regarding Evans after she become unattainable to him.<ref>Yarlott 1967 pp. 153, 310</ref>

The Abyssinian maid is derived from many figures in Coleridge's life, including women who Coleridge admired in some way: Charlotte Brent, Catherine Clarkson, Mary Morgan, and Dorothy Wordsworth. Although Asra/Hutchinson is similar to the way Coleridge talks about the Abyssinian maid, Hutchinson was someone he met after writing ''Kubla Khan''. The person who was the closest match to the figure was Evans, the subject of Coleridge's ''Lewti''. The poem's claim that the narrator would be inspired to act if the song of the maid could be heard was a belief that Coleridge held regarding Evans after she become unattainable to him.<ref>Yarlott 1967 pp. 153, 310</ref>