Changes

Gunpowder was used as a propellant for [[rocket]]s, and to propel shot in cannons and naval guns.  During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Chinese gunpowder technology spread to the whole of Southeast Asia via both the overland and maritime routes, long before the arrival of European firearms. The impact of Chinese firearms revolutionized warfare in India and neighboring areas.  

Gunpowder was used as a propellant for [[rocket]]s, and to propel shot in cannons and naval guns.  During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Chinese gunpowder technology spread to the whole of Southeast Asia via both the overland and maritime routes, long before the arrival of European firearms. The impact of Chinese firearms revolutionized warfare in India and neighboring areas.  

Sieges were the primary form of warfare in the Middle Ages in Europe.  During the period 1346-1500 cannon complemented catpults in siege warfare; only after 1480 did technical improvements in gunpowder and metallurgy render catapults obsolete. Cannons shooting lead, iron or stone projectiles could knock down a castle's high walls, hence the castle had to be aqbandoned.  New fortifications were invented, such as the star shape, such that each wall sloped away from the attacker, reducing the impact of the cannon. One of the main innovators was Italian architect Francesco Di Giorgio, who woked in southern Italy. <ref> Michael S. A. Dechert, "The Military Architecture of Francesco Di Giorgio in Southern Italy." ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 1990 49(2): 161-180. Issn: 0037-9808 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-9808(199006)49%3A2%3C161%3ATMAOFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in Jstor]]</ref>

Sieges were the primary form of warfare in the Middle Ages in Europe.  During the period 1346-1500 cannon complemented catpults in siege warfare; only after 1480 did technical improvements in gunpowder and metallurgy render catapults obsolete. Cannons shooting lead, iron or stone projectiles could knock down a castle's high walls, hence the castle had to be aqbandoned.  New fortifications were invented, such as the star shape, such that each wall sloped away from the attacker, reducing the impact of the cannon. One of the main innovators was Italian architect Francesco Di Giorgio, who woked in southern Italy.<ref>Michael S. A. Dechert, "The Military Architecture of Francesco Di Giorgio in Southern Italy." ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 1990 49(2): 161-180. Issn: 0037-9808 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-9808(199006)49%3A2%3C161%3ATMAOFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in Jstor]</ref>

==Naval warfare==

==Naval warfare==

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref> Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnanace" (2007)</ref>

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref>Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnanace" (2007)</ref>

==Smokeless powder==

==Smokeless powder==

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

This proved reasonably satisfactory until World War II night engagements, when smokeless powder was objectionable because its flash temporarily blinded the ships' crews. Various flash suppressors were devised and mixed with the powder, which was formed into grains for small guns and into pellets for the larger guns. The British used a multiple-based powder, Cordite N, which was relatively flash-free, but which the U.S. Navy considered to be brittle, unduly sensitive to shock, and hazardous in hot climates. As a result the United States developed other flashless powders and was placing one of them, Albanite, in large scale production at the end of World War II.

This proved reasonably satisfactory until World War II night engagements, when smokeless powder was objectionable because its flash temporarily blinded the ships' crews. Various flash suppressors were devised and mixed with the powder, which was formed into grains for small guns and into pellets for the larger guns. The British used a multiple-based powder, Cordite N, which was relatively flash-free, but which the U.S. Navy considered to be brittle, unduly sensitive to shock, and hazardous in hot climates. As a result the United States developed other flashless powders and was placing one of them, Albanite, in large scale production at the end of World War II.

Despite the adoption of smokeless powder, black powder still continued in use as a burster charge for projectiles until just before World War I, when more powerful and less sensitive explosives were adopted. In the U.S. Navy, trinitrotoluene ([[TNT]]) was adopted for smaller projectiles and Explosive D (ammonium picrate) for the larger ones. These continued in use throughout World War II, although by the end of the war more powerful explosives had come into use, particularly in the smaller antiaircraft projectiles. If the entire spectra of powder uses is considered--torpedoes, mines, aerial bombs, and rockets, as well as large and small projectiles--the trend in explosive development, beginning with the adoption of smokeless powder, was to recognize the special demands of various uses and to formulate specialized compounds tailor-made to particular requirements.

Despite the adoption of smokeless powder, black powder still continued in use as a burster charge for projectiles until just before World War I, when more powerful and less sensitive explosives were adopted. In the U.S. Navy, trinitrotoluene ([[TNT]]) was adopted for smaller projectiles and Explosive D (ammonium picrate) for the larger ones. These continued in use throughout World War II, although by the end of the war more powerful explosives had come into use, particularly in the smaller antiaircraft projectiles. If the entire spectra of powder uses is considered—torpedoes, mines, aerial bombs, and rockets, as well as large and small projectiles—the trend in explosive development, beginning with the adoption of smokeless powder, was to recognize the special demands of various uses and to formulate specialized compounds tailor-made to particular requirements.

==Quotes==

==Quotes==

* McNeil, William.  ''The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Forces and Society since 1000 AD'' (1982), has a great deal on gunpowder's role

* McNeil, William.  ''The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Forces and Society since 1000 AD'' (1982), has a great deal on gunpowder's role

* Mauskopf, Seymour H. "Gunpowder and the Chemical Revolution." ''Osiris'' 1988 4: 93-118. Issn: 0369-7827 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0369-7827(1988)2%3A4%3C93%3AGATCR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 in Jstor]

* Mauskopf, Seymour H. "Gunpowder and the Chemical Revolution." ''Osiris'' 1988 4: 93-118. Issn: 0369-7827 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0369-7827(1988)2%3A4%3C93%3AGATCR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 in Jstor]

* Mauskopf, Seymour H. "Chemistry and Cannon: J.-L. Proust and Gunpowder Analysis," ''Technology and Culture,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1990), pp. 398-426 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0040-165X(199007)31%3A3%3C398%3ACACJPA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]

* Mauskopf, Seymour H. "Chemistry and Cannon: J.-L. Proust and Gunpowder Analysis," ''Technology and Culture,'' Vol. 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1990), pp.&nbsp;398–426 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0040-165X(199007)31%3A3%3C398%3ACACJPA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]

* Needham, Joseph and Ho, Ping-yü.  ''Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 7: Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic.'' (1986). 703 pp.   

* Needham, Joseph and Ho, Ping-yü.  ''Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 7: Military Technology: The Gunpowder Epic.'' (1986). 703 pp.   

*  Norris, John. ''Early Gunpowder Artillery: C.1300-1600'' (2003) 144 pages

*  Norris, John. ''Early Gunpowder Artillery: C.1300-1600'' (2003) 144 pages