Changes

==Political vision==

==Political vision==

By 1781, Webster had an expansive view of the new nation. American nationalism was superior to Europe because American values were superior, he claimed. <ref>Ellis 170</ref>

By 1781, Webster had an expansive view of the new nation. American nationalism was superior to Europe because American values were superior, he claimed.<ref>Ellis 170</ref>

<blockquote>

<blockquote>

America sees the absurdities—she sees the kingdoms of Europe, disturbed by wrangling sectaries, or their commerce, population and improvements of every kind cramped and retarded, because the human mind like the body is fettered 'and bound fast by the chords of policy and superstition': She laughs at their folly and shuns their errors: She founds her empire upon the idea of universal toleration: She admits all religions into her bosom—She secures the sacred rights of every individual; and (astonishing absurdity to Europeans!) she sees a thousand discordant opinions live in the strictest harmony ... it will finally raise her to a pitch of greatness and lustre, before which the glory of ancient Greece and Rome shall dwindle to a point, and the splendor of modern Empires fade into obscurity. </blockquote>

America sees the absurdities—she sees the kingdoms of Europe, disturbed by wrangling sectaries, or their commerce, population and improvements of every kind cramped and retarded, because the human mind like the body is fettered 'and bound fast by the chords of policy and superstition': She laughs at their folly and shuns their errors: She founds her empire upon the idea of universal toleration: She admits all religions into her bosom—She secures the sacred rights of every individual; and (astonishing absurdity to Europeans!) she sees a thousand discordant opinions live in the strictest harmony ... it will finally raise her to a pitch of greatness and lustre, before which the glory of ancient Greece and Rome shall dwindle to a point, and the splendor of modern Empires fade into obscurity. </blockquote>

The Websters moved back to New Haven in 1798, and he served in the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1800 and 1802-7.

The Websters moved back to New Haven in 1798, and he served in the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1800 and 1802-7.

==Speller ==  

==Speller ==

As a teacher, he had come to dislike American elementary schools. They were poorly staffed with untrained teachers, and poorly equipped with unsatisfactory textbooks that came from England. The most popular American speller was ''[[The New England Primer]]'', which stressed religion; Webster replaced it with a speller that taught patriotism.  In 1782 he began writing a three volume compendium, ''A Grammatical Institute of the English Language''.<ref> See full text at [http://books.google.com/books?id=tX8SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Noah+inauthor:webster&num=30&as_brr=1]</ref> The work consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a reader (published in 1785). His goal was to provide a uniquely American approach to training children. His most important improvement, he claimed, was to rescue of "our native tongue" from "the clamor of pedantry" that surrounded English grammar and pronunciation. He complained that the English language had been corrupted by the British aristocracy, which set its own standard for proper spelling and pronunciation. Webster rejected the notion that the study of Greek and Latin must precede the study of English grammar. The appropriate standard for the American language, argued Webster, was "the same republican principles as American civil and ecclesiastical constitutions," which meant that the people-at-large must control the language; popular sovereignty in government must be accompanied by popular usage in language. "The truth is general custom is the rule of speaking&mdash;and every deviation from this must be wrong." <ref>Ellis 172.</ref>

As a teacher, he had come to dislike American elementary schools. They were poorly staffed with untrained teachers, and poorly equipped with unsatisfactory textbooks that came from England. The most popular American speller was ''[[The New England Primer]]'', which stressed religion; Webster replaced it with a speller that taught patriotism.  In 1782 he began writing a three volume compendium, ''A Grammatical Institute of the English Language''.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=tX8SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Noah+inauthor:webster&num=30&as_brr=1 See full text at]</ref> The work consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a reader (published in 1785). His goal was to provide a uniquely American approach to training children. His most important improvement, he claimed, was to rescue of "our native tongue" from "the clamor of pedantry" that surrounded English grammar and pronunciation. He complained that the English language had been corrupted by the British aristocracy, which set its own standard for proper spelling and pronunciation. Webster rejected the notion that the study of Greek and Latin must precede the study of English grammar. The appropriate standard for the American language, argued Webster, was "the same republican principles as American civil and ecclesiastical constitutions," which meant that the people-at-large must control the language; popular sovereignty in government must be accompanied by popular usage in language. "The truth is general custom is the rule of speaking&mdash;and every deviation from this must be wrong." <ref>Ellis 172.</ref>

The ''Speller'' was arranged so that it could be easily taught to students, and it progressed by age. From his own experiences as a teacher, Webster thought the ''Speller'' should be simple and gave an orderly presentation of words and the rules of spelling and pronunciation. He believed students learned most readily when he broke a complex problem into its component parts and had each pupil master one part before moving to the next. Ellis argues that Webster anticipated some of the insights currently associated with [[Jean Piaget]]'s theory of cognitive development. Webster said that children pass through distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex or abstract tasks. Therefore, teachers must not try to teach a three-year-old how to read; they could not do it until age five. He organized his speller accordingly, beginning with the alphabet and moving systematically through the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables, then simple words, then more complex words, then sentences. <ref>Ellis 174.</ref>

The ''Speller'' was arranged so that it could be easily taught to students, and it progressed by age. From his own experiences as a teacher, Webster thought the ''Speller'' should be simple and gave an orderly presentation of words and the rules of spelling and pronunciation. He believed students learned most readily when he broke a complex problem into its component parts and had each pupil master one part before moving to the next. Ellis argues that Webster anticipated some of the insights currently associated with [[Jean Piaget]]'s theory of cognitive development. Webster said that children pass through distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex or abstract tasks. Therefore, teachers must not try to teach a three-year-old how to read; they could not do it until age five. He organized his speller accordingly, beginning with the alphabet and moving systematically through the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables, then simple words, then more complex words, then sentences.<ref>Ellis 174.</ref>

The speller was originally entitled ''The First Part of the Grammatical Institute of the English Language''. Over the course of 385 editions in his lifetime, the title was changed in 1786 to ''The American Spelling Book'', and again in 1829 to ''The Elementary Spelling Book''. Most people called it the "Blue-Backed Speller" because of its blue cover, and  for the next one hundred years, Webster's book taught children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. It was the most popular American book of its time; by 1837 it had sold 15 million copies, and some 60 million by 1890--reaching the majority of young students in the nation's first century. Its royalty of a half-cent per copy was enough to sustain Webster in his other endeavors.  

The speller was originally entitled ''The First Part of the Grammatical Institute of the English Language''. Over the course of 385 editions in his lifetime, the title was changed in 1786 to ''The American Spelling Book'', and again in 1829 to ''The Elementary Spelling Book''. Most people called it the "Blue-Backed Speller" because of its blue cover, and  for the next one hundred years, Webster's book taught children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. It was the most popular American book of its time; by 1837 it had sold 15 million copies, and some 60 million by 1890—reaching the majority of young students in the nation's first century. Its royalty of a half-cent per copy was enough to sustain Webster in his other endeavors.  

Part three of his ''Grammatical Institute'' (1785) was a reader designed to uplift the mind and "diffuse the principles of virtue and patriotism." "In the choice of pieces," he explained, "I have not been inattentive to the political interests of America. Several of those masterly addresses of Congress, written at the commencement of the late Revolution, contain such noble, just, and independent sentiments of liberty and patriotism, that I cannot help wishing to transfuse them into the breasts of the rising generation." Students received the usual quota of Plutarch, Shakespeare, Swift, and Addison, as well as such Americans as Joel Barlow's ''Vision of Columbus'', Timothy Dwight's ''Conquest of Canaan'', and John Trumbull's poem ''M'Fingal.'' He included excerpts from Tom Paine's ''The Crisis'' and an essay by Thomas Day calling for the abolition of slavery in accord with the Declaration of Independence.  

Part three of his ''Grammatical Institute'' (1785) was a reader designed to uplift the mind and "diffuse the principles of virtue and patriotism." "In the choice of pieces," he explained, "I have not been inattentive to the political interests of America. Several of those masterly addresses of Congress, written at the commencement of the late Revolution, contain such noble, just, and independent sentiments of liberty and patriotism, that I cannot help wishing to transfuse them into the breasts of the rising generation." Students received the usual quota of Plutarch, Shakespeare, Swift, and Addison, as well as such Americans as Joel Barlow's ''Vision of Columbus'', Timothy Dwight's ''Conquest of Canaan'', and John Trumbull's poem ''M'Fingal.'' He included excerpts from Tom Paine's ''The Crisis'' and an essay by Thomas Day calling for the abolition of slavery in accord with the Declaration of Independence.  

Unauthorized printing of his books, and disparate [[copyright]] laws that varied among the thirteen states, led Webster to champion the federal copyright law that was successfully passed in 1790.   

Unauthorized printing of his books, and disparate [[copyright]] laws that varied among the thirteen states, led Webster to champion the federal copyright law that was successfully passed in 1790.   

===Secular textbook===

===Secular textbook===

Webster's ''Speller'' was entirely secular. It ended with two pages of important dates in American history, beginning with Columbus's in 1492 and ending with the battle of Yorktown in 1781. There was no mention of God, the Bible, or sacred events. "Let sacred things be appropriated for sacred purposes," wrote Webster. As Ellis explains, "Webster began to construct a secular catechism to the nation-state. Here was the first appearance of 'civics' in American schoolbooks. In this sense, Webster's speller replaced was the secular successor to ''The New England Primer'' with its explicitly biblical injunctions." <ref>Ellis 175.</ref>  In turn after 1840 Webster's books lost market share to the ''McGuffey Eclectic Readers'' of William Holmes McGuffey, which sold over 120 million copies.<ref> John H. Westerhoff III, ''McGuffey and His Readers: Piety, Morality, and Education in Nineteenth-Century America'' (1978).</ref>

Webster's ''Speller'' was entirely secular. It ended with two pages of important dates in American history, beginning with Columbus's in 1492 and ending with the battle of Yorktown in 1781. There was no mention of God, the Bible, or sacred events. "Let sacred things be appropriated for sacred purposes," wrote Webster. As Ellis explains, "Webster began to construct a secular catechism to the nation-state. Here was the first appearance of 'civics' in American schoolbooks. In this sense, Webster's speller replaced was the secular successor to ''The New England Primer'' with its explicitly biblical injunctions." <ref>Ellis 175.</ref>  In turn after 1840 Webster's books lost market share to the ''McGuffey Eclectic Readers'' of William Holmes McGuffey, which sold over 120 million copies.<ref>John H. Westerhoff III, ''McGuffey and His Readers: Piety, Morality, and Education in Nineteenth-Century America'' (1978).</ref>

===National unity===

===National unity===

Bynack (1984) examines Webster in relation to his commitment to the idea of a unified American national culture that would stave off the decline of republican virtues and solidarity. Webster acquired his perspective on language from such theorists as Mauertuis, Michaelis, and Herder. There he found the belief that a nation's linguistic forms and the thoughts correlated with them shaped individuals' behavior. Thus the etymological clarification and reform of American English promised to improve citizens' manners and thereby preserve republican purity and social stability. This presupposition animated Webster's ''Speller'' and ''Grammar''.

Bynack (1984) examines Webster in relation to his commitment to the idea of a unified American national culture that would stave off the decline of republican virtues and solidarity. Webster acquired his perspective on language from such theorists as Mauertuis, Michaelis, and Herder. There he found the belief that a nation's linguistic forms and the thoughts correlated with them shaped individuals' behavior. Thus the etymological clarification and reform of American English promised to improve citizens' manners and thereby preserve republican purity and social stability. This presupposition animated Webster's ''Speller'' and ''Grammar''.

==Conservatism==

==Conservatism==

Webster grew increasingly authoritarian and elitist, fighting against the prevailing grain of [[Jacksonian Democracy]]. Webster viewed language as a tool to control unruly thoughts. His ''American Dictionary'' emphasized the virtues of social control over human passions and individualism, submission to authority, and fear of God; they were necessary for the maintenance of the American social order. As he grew older, Webster's attitudes changed from those of an optimistic revolutionary in the 1780s to those of a pessimistic critic of man and society by the 1820s. <ref>Rollins (1980).</ref>   

Webster grew increasingly authoritarian and elitist, fighting against the prevailing grain of [[Jacksonian Democracy]]. Webster viewed language as a tool to control unruly thoughts. His ''American Dictionary'' emphasized the virtues of social control over human passions and individualism, submission to authority, and fear of God; they were necessary for the maintenance of the American social order. As he grew older, Webster's attitudes changed from those of an optimistic revolutionary in the 1780s to those of a pessimistic critic of man and society by the 1820s.<ref>Rollins (1980).</ref>   

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* "Noah Webster" in ''The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes'' (1907–21). vol 18 section 25:33 [http://www.bartleby.com/228/0233.html online edition]

* "Noah Webster" in ''The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes'' (1907–21). vol 18 section 25:33 [http://www.bartleby.com/228/0233.html online edition]

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[[Category:Conservatives]]

[[Category:Conservatives]]

[[category:Dictionary]]

[[Category:Dictionary]]

[[category:Educators]]

[[Category:Educators]]

[[category:United States History]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[Category:Journalism]]

[[Category:Journalism]]

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