Changes

Egypt has four main regions: the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, where about 99 percent of population lives.  Modest amounts of [[rain]]fall occur along the Mediterranean coast; rainfall throughout the remainder of the country is minimal to nonexistent.

Egypt has four main regions: the Eastern and Western Deserts, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Nile Valley and Delta, where about 99 percent of population lives.  Modest amounts of [[rain]]fall occur along the Mediterranean coast; rainfall throughout the remainder of the country is minimal to nonexistent.

 

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*Religions: Muslim 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%.  

*Religions: Muslim 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%.  

*Languages: Arabic (official), English, French.

*Languages: Arabic (official), English, French.

*Education: Years compulsory--ages 6-15. Literacy--total adult: 58%.  

*Education: Years compulsory—ages 6–15. Literacy—total adult: 58%.  

*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--31.33 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.): 71 years.

*Health: Infant mortality rate (2006 est.)--31.33 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy (2006 est.): 71 years.

[[File:Hassan Mohamed Hassan Egypt Breaking Chains.jpg|thumb|Hassan Mohamed Hassan, Egypt Breaking Chains.]]

[[File:Hassan Mohamed Hassan Egypt Breaking Chains.jpg|thumb|Hassan Mohamed Hassan, Egypt Breaking Chains.]]

''See also: [[President of Egypt]]''

{{See also|President of Egypt}}

The Egyptian Constitution provides for a strong executive. Authority is vested in an elected president who can appoint one or more vice presidents, a prime minister, and a cabinet. The president's term runs for 6 years. Egypt's legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 454 members--444 popularly elected and 10 appointed by the president. The constitution reserves 50% of the assembly seats for "workers and peasants." The assembly sits for a 5-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. There also is a 264-member Shura (consultative) Council, in which 88 members are appointed and 174 elected for 6-year terms. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.  

The Egyptian Constitution provides for a strong executive. Authority is vested in an elected president who can appoint one or more vice presidents, a prime minister, and a cabinet. The president's term runs for 6 years. Egypt's legislative body, the People's Assembly, has 454 members—444 popularly elected and 10 appointed by the president. The constitution reserves 50% of the assembly seats for "workers and peasants." The assembly sits for a 5-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. There also is a 264-member Shura (consultative) Council, in which 88 members are appointed and 174 elected for 6-year terms. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.  

Opposition party organizations make their views public and represent their followers at various levels in the political system, but power is concentrated in the hands of the President and the National Democratic Party majority in the People's Assembly and those institutions dominate the political system. In addition to the ruling National Democratic Party, there are 18 other legally recognized parties, whereas in 2004 there were only 16 other legally recognized parties.  

Opposition party organizations make their views public and represent their followers at various levels in the political system, but power is concentrated in the hands of the President and the National Democratic Party majority in the People's Assembly and those institutions dominate the political system. In addition to the ruling National Democratic Party, there are 18 other legally recognized parties, whereas in 2004 there were only 16 other legally recognized parties.  

*President--[[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]

*President--[[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]]

*Vice President--''vacant''

*Vice President--''vacant''

*Prime Minister--Ibrahim Mahlab

*Prime Minister—Ibrahim Mahlab

*Interior Minister--  

*Interior Minister--  

*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Nabil Fahmi

*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Nabil Fahmi

*Ambassador to the United States--Ambassador

*Ambassador to the United States—Ambassador

*Permanent Representative to the United Nations--Ambassador

*Permanent Representative to the United Nations—Ambassador

===Foreign Relations===

===Foreign Relations===

The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amre Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. Ex-President Mubarak has often chaired the African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity). Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.  

The Arab League headquarters is in Cairo, and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amre Moussa is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. Ex-President Mubarak has often chaired the African Union (formerly the Organization of African Unity). Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.  

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region--from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under U.S. and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with Ex-President Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President Bush for another summit on the Middle East peace process. Throughout mid-2004, Egypt worked closely with Israel and the Palestinian Authority to facilitate stability following Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza, which occurred in August and September of 2005. Prior to this Egypt and Israel reached an agreement that allowed Egypt to deploy additional forces along the Philadelphi Corridor in an attempt to control the border and prevent the smuggling of weapons.  

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Sadat's groundbreaking trip to Israel in 1977, the 1978 Camp David Accords, and the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region—from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from 1979 to 1989. Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, which, under U.S. and Russian sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. This support has continued to the present, with Ex-President Mubarak often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In 1996, he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh "Summit of the Peacemakers" attended by President Clinton and other world leaders. In 2000, he hosted two summits at Sharm El-Sheikh and one at Taba in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President Bush for another summit on the Middle East peace process. Throughout mid-2004, Egypt worked closely with Israel and the Palestinian Authority to facilitate stability following Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza, which occurred in August and September 2005. Prior to this Egypt and Israel reached an agreement that allowed Egypt to deploy additional forces along the Philadelphi Corridor in an attempt to control the border and prevent the smuggling of weapons.  

Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. Ex-President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was the third-largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and U.K. In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to UN peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. In August 2004, Egypt was actively engaged in seeking a solution to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan, including the dispatch of military monitors. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and actively supported the Iraqi Governing Council, as well as the subsequent government of Prime Minister Allawi. In July 2005, terrorists attacked the Egyptian city of Sharm El Sheikh. In the same month, Egypt's envoy to Iraq was assassinated.

Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. Ex-President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate Kuwait. The Egyptian contingent was the third-largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and U.K. In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with Syria and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to UN peacekeeping missions, most recently in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. In August 2004, Egypt was actively engaged in seeking a solution to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan, including the dispatch of military monitors. Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as Osama bin Ladin and al-Qaeda, and actively supported the Iraqi Governing Council, as well as the subsequent government of Prime Minister Allawi. In July 2005, terrorists attacked the Egyptian city of Sharm El Sheikh. In the same month, Egypt's envoy to Iraq was assassinated.

*Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.  

*Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.  

*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.  

*Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.  

*Agriculture: Products--cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.  

*Agriculture: Products—cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.  

*Industry: Types--food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.  

*Industry: Types—food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.  

*Trade (FY 2005): Exports--$14.3 billion: petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. *Major markets--EU, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports--$24.1 billion: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers--EU, U.S., Japan.  

*Trade (FY 2005): Exports--$14.3 billion: petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. *Major markets—EU, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports--$24.1 billion: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers—EU, U.S., Japan.  

===Agriculture===  

===Agriculture===

Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Nearly all of Egypt’s agricultural production takes place in some 2.5 million hectares (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.  

Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in farming, and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Nearly all of Egypt’s agricultural production takes place in some 2.5 million hectares (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt, but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion.  

[[File:Egyptian Countryside.jpg|left|400px]]

[[File:Egyptian Countryside.jpg|left|400px]]

"Egypt," wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive [[oasis]]. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.  

"Egypt," wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive [[oasis]]. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.  

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi.) from south to north.  

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain, never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150&nbsp;mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96&nbsp;mi.) from south to north.  

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on millions of acres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of billions of low-cost kilowatt hours of electricity.  

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on millions of acres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of billions of low-cost kilowatt hours of electricity.  

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The Ministry of Petroleum has determined that expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. As of September 2005, three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains had been in operation. The first is in Damietta on the eastern side of the Delta and started exporting in early 2005. It is headed by the Spanish electric utility, Union Fenosa. The second LNG project is located at Idku on the western side of the Delta and started exporting in 2005. The first train started in April 2005, and the second in September. British Gas (BG) Group and the Malaysian state oil company Petronas are the major investors. Another project that will utilize gas for export and domestic consumption is the Mediterranean Gas Complex in Port Said where the Italian company AGIP and BP are the main shareholders. This facility will have a total cost of about $315 million and went on line in late 2004.  

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The Ministry of Petroleum has determined that expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. As of September 2005, three liquefied natural gas (LNG) trains had been in operation. The first is in Damietta on the eastern side of the Delta and started exporting in early 2005. It is headed by the Spanish electric utility, Union Fenosa. The second LNG project is located at Idku on the western side of the Delta and started exporting in 2005. The first train started in April 2005, and the second in September. British Gas (BG) Group and the Malaysian state oil company Petronas are the major investors. Another project that will utilize gas for export and domestic consumption is the Mediterranean Gas Complex in Port Said where the Italian company AGIP and BP are the main shareholders. This facility will have a total cost of about $315 million and went on line in late 2004.  

Egypt and Jordan established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas to Jordan, and then later to Syria and Lebanon. In summer 2003 Egypt began exporting gas to Jordan via a new pipeline from El Arish on Egypt’s north Sinai cost to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba, and then underwater to the Jordanian city of Aqaba. Gas exports to Jordan generated gross revenues of approximately $60 million in 2003/04 and are currently reaching $85-100 million.

Egypt and Jordan established the Eastern Gas Company to export natural gas to Jordan, and then later to Syria and Lebanon. In summer 2003 Egypt began exporting gas to Jordan via a new pipeline from El Arish on Egypt’s north Sinai cost to Taba on the Gulf of Aqaba, and then underwater to the Jordanian city of Aqaba. Gas exports to Jordan generated gross revenues of approximately $60 million in 2003/04 and are currently reaching $85–100 million.

===Transport and Communication===

===Transport and Communication===

Transportation facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.  

Transportation facilities in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the Nile Valley and Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.  

Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safraga on the Red Sea.  

Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600&nbsp;km. or 1,000&nbsp;mi.) and the principal canals (1,600&nbsp;km.) are important locally for transportation. The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safraga on the Red Sea.  

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab-speaking world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.  

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab-speaking world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.  

Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. Based on these time estimates, organized agriculture appeared by 6000 B.C.  

Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. Based on these time estimates, organized agriculture appeared by 6000 B.C.  

In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided--the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]] (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).  

In about 3100 B.C., Egypt was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided—the Old and the Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The [[pyramid]]s at [[Giza]] (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.).  

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In 525 B., [[Cambyses]], the son of [[Cyrus the Great]], led a [[Persian]] invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. The country remained a Persian province until conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 322 BC, ushering in [[Ptolemeic]] rule Egypt that lasted for nearly 300 years. [[Cleopatra]] was the last ruler of that dynasty, but when she committed suicide after losing to Rome when her lover [[Marc Antony]] was defeated by [[Octavian]] in the [[Battle of Actium]], Egypt became a part of the [[Roman Empire]].  

In 525 B., [[Cambyses]], the son of [[Cyrus the Great]], led a [[Persian]] invasion force that dethroned the last pharaoh of the 26th Dynasty. The country remained a Persian province until conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] in 322 BC, ushering in [[Ptolemeic]] rule Egypt that lasted for nearly 300 years. [[Cleopatra]] was the last ruler of that dynasty, but when she committed suicide after losing to Rome when her lover [[Marc Antony]] was defeated by [[Octavian]] in the [[Battle of Actium]], Egypt became a part of the [[Roman Empire]].  

Egypt was invaded and conquered by Arab forces under [[Islam]] in 642. A process of Arabization and Islamization ensued. Although a [[Coptic Christian]] minority remained--and remains today, constituting about 10% of the population--the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab, [[Mameluke]], and Ottoman [[caliph]]s, beys, and [[sultan]]s ruled the country.  

Egypt was invaded and conquered by Arab forces under [[Islam]] in 642. A process of Arabization and Islamization ensued. Although a [[Coptic Christian]] minority remained—and remains today, constituting about 10% of the population—the Arab language inexorably supplanted the indigenous Coptic tongue. For the next 1,300 years, a succession of Arab, [[Mameluke]], and Ottoman [[caliph]]s, beys, and [[sultan]]s ruled the country.  

Like most of the middle east, the current population in modern Egypt is by [[Arabs]] that have Arabized the [[indigenous]] people, the Nubians and the [[Copts]] are considered to be the real natives to Egypt.

Like most of the middle east, the current population in modern Egypt is by [[Arabs]] that have Arabized the [[indigenous]] people, the Nubians and the [[Copts]] are considered to be the real natives to Egypt.

===European Influence===  

===European Influence===

[[File:Abu Simbel Temple Egypt.jpg|thumb|left|Abu Simbel.]]

[[File:Abu Simbel Temple Egypt.jpg|thumb|left|Abu Simbel.]]

The [[Ottoman Turks]] controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for a brief period of [[French]] rule under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. In 1805, [[Mohammed Ali (Egypt)|Mohammed Ali]], commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops, was appointed [[Pasha]], founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt, at least in name, until his great-great grandson, [[Farouk I]], was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, writing the first chapter in the modern history of Egypt. The growth of modern urban [[Cairo]] began in the reign of [[Ismail]] (1863-79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. The [[Suez Canal]] was completed in his reign in 1869, and its completion was celebrated by many events, including the commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).  

The [[Ottoman Turks]] controlled Egypt from 1517 until 1882, except for a brief period of [[French]] rule under [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. In 1805, [[Mohammed Ali (Egypt)|Mohammed Ali]], commander of an Albanian contingent of Ottoman troops, was appointed [[Pasha]], founding the dynasty that ruled Egypt, at least in name, until his great-great grandson, [[Farouk I]], was overthrown in 1952. Mohammed Ali the Great ruled Egypt until 1848, writing the first chapter in the modern history of Egypt. The growth of modern urban [[Cairo]] began in the reign of [[Ismail]] (1863–79). Eager to Westernize the capital, he ordered the construction of a European-style city to the west of the medieval core. The [[Suez Canal]] was completed in his reign in 1869, and its completion was celebrated by many events, including the commissioning of Verdi's "Aida" for the new opera house and the building of great palaces such as the Omar Khayyam (originally constructed to entertain the French Empress Eugenie, which is now the central section of the Cairo Marriott Hotel).  

In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the virtual inclusion of Egypt within the [[British Empire]]. In deference to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.  

In 1882, British expeditionary forces crushed a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, marking the beginning of British occupation and the virtual inclusion of Egypt within the [[British Empire]]. In deference to growing nationalism, the U.K. unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922. British influence, however, continued to dominate Egypt's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms.  

In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British influence; [[King Fuad]], whom the British had installed during [[World War II]]; and the British themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal. Other political forces emerging in this period included the communist party (1925) and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (1928), which eventually became a potent political and religious force.  

In the pre-1952 revolution period, three political forces competed with one another: the Wafd, a broadly based nationalist political organization strongly opposed to British influence; [[King Fuad]], whom the British had installed during [[World War II]]; and the British themselves, who were determined to maintain control over the Canal. Other political forces emerging in this period included the communist party (1925) and the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (1928), which eventually became a potent political and religious force.  

During [[World War II]], British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. On July 22-23, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with [[Israel]]. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the [[Arab world]], promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized Egypt’s economy.  

During [[World War II]], British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the [[Suez Canal]] area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. On July 22–23, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers (the "free officers") led by Lt. Col. [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] overthrew King Farouk, whom the military blamed for Egypt's poor performance in the 1948 war with [[Israel]]. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, they abrogated the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on June 19, 1953. Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt, but the [[Arab world]], promoting and implementing "Arab socialism." He nationalized Egypt’s economy.  

Nasser helped establish the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis [[Soviet Union|Moscow]], Nasser concluded an arms deal with [[Czechoslovakia]] in September 1955.  

Nasser helped establish the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] of developing countries in September 1961, and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his death in 1970. When the United States held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality vis-à-vis [[Soviet Union|Moscow]], Nasser concluded an arms deal with [[Czechoslovakia]] in September 1955.  

In January 2011, spurred by increasing [[food]] and [[oil]] prices as well as rampant [[corruption]] of the [[Muslim]] autocrats,<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/feb/08/egypt-revolution-muslim-brotherhood-democracy Egyptian revolution], the Guardian.</ref> many of Egyptians gathered at Tahrir square in [[Alexandria]] in an uprising.  [[Conservatives]], irked by the inactions of the [[liberal]] [[president]] and secretary of state, have taken this as proof that the [[democrats]] implicitly support the Mubarak [[dictatorship]].<ref>[http://spectator.org/blog/2011/01/25/as-egypt-erupts-will-obama-rem Obama silent as Egypt erupts], American Spectator.</ref>  [[American]] leadership to [[democracy]], the most promising of which includes personal intervention by Alaska Governor [[Sarah Palin]].<ref>[http://christwire.org/2011/01/as-egypt-descends-in-chaos-should-sarah-palin-support-a-us-led-invasion/ As Egypt descends in chaos, Palin should support a US led invasion] Christwire</ref>

In January 2011, spurred by increasing [[food]] and [[oil]] prices as well as rampant [[corruption]] of the [[Muslim]] autocrats,<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/feb/08/egypt-revolution-muslim-brotherhood-democracy Egyptian revolution], the Guardian.</ref> many of Egyptians gathered at Tahrir square in [[Alexandria]] in an uprising.  [[Conservatives]], irked by the inactions of the [[liberal]] [[president]] and secretary of state, have taken this as proof that the [[democrats]] implicitly support the Mubarak [[dictatorship]].<ref>[http://spectator.org/blog/2011/01/25/as-egypt-erupts-will-obama-rem Obama silent as Egypt erupts], American Spectator.</ref>  [[American]] leadership to [[democracy]], the most promising of which includes personal intervention by Alaska Governor [[Sarah Palin]].<ref>[http://christwire.org/2011/01/as-egypt-descends-in-chaos-should-sarah-palin-support-a-us-led-invasion/ As Egypt descends in chaos, Palin should support a US led invasion] Christwire</ref>

On 11 February, Mubarak resigned from office. Vice President Omar Suleiman said: "Mubarak has mandated the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to run the state. God is our protector and succor." The Council of Armed Forces dissolved Egypt’s parliament and suspended the Constitution. Egyptians people associate Omar Suleiman with a new puppet of the US government. <ref> [http://www.presstv.com/detail/162945.html Mubarak setting thugs loose on people.]</ref>

On 11 February, Mubarak resigned from office. Vice President Omar Suleiman said: "Mubarak has mandated the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to run the state. God is our protector and succor." The Council of Armed Forces dissolved Egypt’s parliament and suspended the Constitution. Egyptians people associate Omar Suleiman with a new puppet of the US government.<ref>[http://www.presstv.com/detail/162945.html Mubarak setting thugs loose on people.]</ref>

[[File:Egyptian Museum Cairo Egypt.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Museum, Cairo.]]

[[File:Egyptian Museum Cairo Egypt.jpg|thumb|Egyptian Museum, Cairo.]]

The Egyptian Museum is situated at Tahrir square in Cairo where many of Egyptians gathered during protests; Egyptian soldiers fought off an army of looters and arrested more than 50 thieves who were trying to steal the nation's treasures. The Museum, which is home to the gold mask of King Tutankhamen and other priceless artifacts, suffered mainly at the museum shop and two mummies were damaged. <ref>[http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-01-31/news/27738516_1_looters-antiquities-priceless-artifacts Protesters defended Cairo's Egyptian Museum from looters; archeological warehouses raided.] </ref> <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8291526/Egypt-crisis-Looters-destroy-mummies-in-Cairo-museum.html Egypt crisis: Looters destroy mummies in Cairo museum.]</ref>

The Egyptian Museum is situated at Tahrir square in Cairo where many of Egyptians gathered during protests; Egyptian soldiers fought off an army of looters and arrested more than 50 thieves who were trying to steal the nation's treasures. The Museum, which is home to the gold mask of King Tutankhamen and other priceless artifacts, suffered mainly at the museum shop and two mummies were damaged.<ref>[http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-01-31/news/27738516_1_looters-antiquities-priceless-artifacts Protesters defended Cairo's Egyptian Museum from looters; archeological warehouses raided.]</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8291526/Egypt-crisis-Looters-destroy-mummies-in-Cairo-museum.html Egypt crisis: Looters destroy mummies in Cairo museum.]</ref>

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