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Western Christendom abolished slavery during the 19th century.

Western Christendom abolished slavery during the 19th century.

The last forms of legal slavery were outlawed in 1970 in the Arabian countries, but hidden slavery still exists today in remote parts of Africa such as the [[Sudan]] where Arabs own black slaves. In Mauritania, dark-skinned people own lighter-skinned slaves.<ref> [http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9605/articles/gregory.html African Slavery 1996]</ref>

The last forms of legal slavery were outlawed in 1970 in the Arabian countries, but hidden slavery still exists today in remote parts of Africa such as the [[Sudan]] where Arabs own black slaves. In Mauritania, dark-skinned people own lighter-skinned slaves.<ref>[http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9605/articles/gregory.html African Slavery 1996]</ref>

Slavery was found in the history of most civilizations.  Slavery flourishes where there is a high demand for labor and not enough workers. When the workers are plentiful, slavery dies out because it is unprofitable. That is, it becomes cheaper to free a slave and hire low cost paid labor than to buy and maintain slaves.  Typically, when it had almost died out, it was made illegal by the government, as in Brazil.

Slavery was found in the history of most civilizations.  Slavery flourishes where there is a high demand for labor and not enough workers. When the workers are plentiful, slavery dies out because it is unprofitable. That is, it becomes cheaper to free a slave and hire low cost paid labor than to buy and maintain slaves.  Typically, when it had almost died out, it was made illegal by the government, as in Brazil.

The most famous instance of slavery was in the American South until it was forcibly ended during the [[American Civil War]] (1861-65)--the only major war in world history fought over slavery.

The most famous instance of slavery was in the American South until it was forcibly ended during the [[American Civil War]] (1861–65)--the only major war in world history fought over slavery.

==Economics==

==Economics==

Most ancient civilizations, including Greece and Rome, practiced slavery on a large scale.   

Most ancient civilizations, including Greece and Rome, practiced slavery on a large scale.   

Slavery has its roots deep in humanity's pagan past, in humanity's fallen, self-centered nature.  According to the Bible, God created humankind free, giving them the dignity of choice.  Yet slavery is found earlier than the time of Abraham (about 2,000 B.C.)  In the Garden of Eden, according to the Bible, God gave Adam the blessing of work even before the Fall.  That work became harder after our first parents rebelled against their Creator.<ref>The Holy Bible, Genesis 3:17-19</ref></ref>Heathen nations despised manual labor, and consigned it to slaves<ref>Lorella Rouster, The History of Slavery, ECM Publ, 2011, [/ 1</ref>

Slavery has its roots deep in humanity's pagan past, in humanity's fallen, self-centered nature.  According to the Bible, God created humankind free, giving them the dignity of choice.  Yet slavery is found earlier than the time of Abraham (about 2,000 B.C.)  In the Garden of Eden, according to the Bible, God gave Adam the blessing of work even before the Fall.  That work became harder after our first parents rebelled against their Creator.<ref>The Holy Bible, Genesis 3:17-19</ref></ref> Heathen nations despised manual labor, and consigned it to slaves<ref>Lorella Rouster, The History of Slavery, ECM Publ, 2011, [/ 1</ref>

All early civilizations were built on slave labor--Mesopotamia, Babylon, Eqypt, Greece, Rome, and the big civilizations of Central America.<ref>Rouster, p. 2</ref> Milton Meltzer's book, Slavery, A World History, is filled with pictures of ancient carvings, paintings and other artifacts clealy picturing slavery..<ref>Milton Meltzer, Slavery, a World History</ref> Historian Kenneth Scott LaTourette said, "Slavery was a characteristic feature of the social and economic organization of the ancient world."<ref>LaTourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. I, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI, 1939, 1967, p. 26</ref>

All early civilizations were built on slave labor—Mesopotamia, Babylon, Eqypt, Greece, Rome, and the big civilizations of Central America.<ref>Rouster, p. 2</ref> Milton Meltzer's book, Slavery, A World History, is filled with pictures of ancient carvings, paintings and other artifacts clealy picturing slavery.<ref>Milton Meltzer, Slavery, a World History</ref> Historian Kenneth Scott LaTourette said, "Slavery was a characteristic feature of the social and economic organization of the ancient world."<ref>LaTourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol. I, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, MI, 1939, 1967, p. 26</ref>

In [[Egypt]], the Hebrews were slaves for a time.  "All the slaves were considered the property of the gods and the pharaoh."<ref>Meltzer, p. 32</ref> Technically, slaves in Egypt were prisoners of war and foreigners.  However, the peasant class which did all the manual labor were tied to the land belonging to pharaoh and had a standard of living difficult to distinguish from slavery.<ref>Meltzer, p. 30</ref>  

In [[Egypt]], the Hebrews were slaves for a time.  "All the slaves were considered the property of the gods and the pharaoh."<ref>Meltzer, p. 32</ref> Technically, slaves in Egypt were prisoners of war and foreigners.  However, the peasant class which did all the manual labor were tied to the land belonging to pharaoh and had a standard of living difficult to distinguish from slavery.<ref>Meltzer, p. 30</ref>  

Under Roman law, slaves had no rights. They were considered property, not persons.  They could not own  or inherit property.  They were not permitted to legally marry, so all their children were considered illegitimate.<ref>Meltzer, p. 144 & 176</ref>

Under Roman law, slaves had no rights. They were considered property, not persons.  They could not own  or inherit property.  They were not permitted to legally marry, so all their children were considered illegitimate.<ref>Meltzer, p. 144 & 176</ref>

Often prisoners of wars in ancient history were used as slaves, particularly during the [[Roman Empire]]. Historians debate how extensive slavery was in the Roman Empire--estimates go as high as 25% of the population.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shtml BBC - History - Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome]</ref>  [[Christianity]] helped lessen the harshness by which Romans treated slaves. The Roman jurist Ulpian wrote, "As far as Roman law is concerned, slaves are regarded as nothing."<ref>Meltzer, p. 178</ref>

Often prisoners of wars in ancient history were used as slaves, particularly during the [[Roman Empire]]. Historians debate how extensive slavery was in the Roman Empire—estimates go as high as 25% of the population.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shtml BBC - History - Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome]</ref>  [[Christianity]] helped lessen the harshness by which Romans treated slaves. The Roman jurist Ulpian wrote, "As far as Roman law is concerned, slaves are regarded as nothing."<ref>Meltzer, p. 178</ref>

Other means by which ancient peoples went into slavery were inability to pay debts, being sold by their parents for the same reason, being born to slave parents, and being kidnapped by slave raiders or pirates.

Other means by which ancient peoples went into slavery were inability to pay debts, being sold by their parents for the same reason, being born to slave parents, and being kidnapped by slave raiders or pirates.

Christianity was born into a world that was overwhelmed with slavery, with Rome, the dominant world power in the time of Jesus, utterly dependent on slave labor.  The life and teachings of Jesus and His followers, described in the New Testament, while not forbidding slavery nor organizing any campaign against it, struck at the very roots of slavery, drying up its power much as herbicides work on killing stubborn weeds from the roots up.<ref>Rouster, History of Slavery, p.6.</ref>

Christianity was born into a world that was overwhelmed with slavery, with Rome, the dominant world power in the time of Jesus, utterly dependent on slave labor.  The life and teachings of Jesus and His followers, described in the New Testament, while not forbidding slavery nor organizing any campaign against it, struck at the very roots of slavery, drying up its power much as herbicides work on killing stubborn weeds from the roots up.<ref>Rouster, History of Slavery, p.6.</ref>

Jesus dignified labor by working as a carpenter.  He took the form of a servant.  He washed the disciples' feet.  He commanded us to love our neighbors and do good to our enemies.  He had a habit of calling people back to the beginning of things, and in the beginning God created people free.  Christianity promoted the equality of its members, accepting slave and slavemaster as equal brothers and sisters serving side by side in the church (Galatians 3:28).  Christianity, like Judaism before it, taught that God gave humankind the dignity to choose for ourselves.  That is possible only in liberty and not in slavery.  These influences worked quietly at first, for Christians were not a world power or even a majority.  Most had no political power, and they lived in a totalitarian system.  Yet because of the Christian emphasis on love and mercy, slavery was soon rid of most of its extreme features of cruelty.  In early Christian writings, there was an emphasis on being free in spirit to serve Christ even if one's station in life was as a slave.  Ambrose wrote that the slave "might be superior in character to his master and might be more truly free" (LaTourette, p. 622.

Jesus dignified labor by working as a carpenter.  He took the form of a servant.  He washed the disciples' feet.  He commanded us to love our neighbors and do good to our enemies.  He had a habit of calling people back to the beginning of things, and in the beginning God created people free.  Christianity promoted the equality of its members, accepting slave and slavemaster as equal brothers and sisters serving side by side in the church (Galatians 3:28).  Christianity, like Judaism before it, taught that God gave humankind the dignity to choose for ourselves.  That is possible only in liberty and not in slavery.  These influences worked quietly at first, for Christians were not a world power or even a majority.  Most had no political power, and they lived in a totalitarian system.  Yet because of the Christian emphasis on love and mercy, slavery was soon rid of most of its extreme features of cruelty.  In early Christian writings, there was an emphasis on being free in spirit to serve Christ even if one's station in life was as a slave.  Ambrose wrote that the slave "might be superior in character to his master and might be more truly free" (LaTourette, p.&nbsp;622.

However, in the second and third centuries after Christ, as wealthy Romans began to be converted to Christiantiy, tens of thousands of slaves were freed by converts.  Melania freed 8,000, Ovidus 5,000, Chromatius 1400, Hermes 1200. <ref>Shmidt, p. 274, from W.E. H. Lecky, History of European Morals, 1911</ref>  Converted out of a decadent, totally self-absorbed society, many Christians sold their goods and lands and used the proceeds to help the poor, support hospitals, take in orphans, free prisoners, and free slaves.  Liberation was frequent, especially on Easter and other special days of the church.  Church law from the early centuries allowed for liberation (called manumission) of slaves during church services. <ref>CAnnon LIIIV, The African Code CAnons, aslo called the Canons of he Fathers Assembled at Carthage, 419 A.D.</ref><ref>The Canons of the Council in Tuillo (also called the Quinisext Council, 692 A.D..</ref>Freeing slaves took great conviction and courage, for the Roman emperors issued edicts unfavorable to the practice.  Clement said in his Epistle to the Corinthians no 55, "Some Christians surrendered their own freedom to liberate others."<ref>Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor, Book III, Chapter IV</ref>

However, in the second and third centuries after Christ, as wealthy Romans began to be converted to Christiantiy, tens of thousands of slaves were freed by converts.  Melania freed 8,000, Ovidus 5,000, Chromatius 1400, Hermes 1200.<ref>Shmidt, p. 274, from W.E. H. Lecky, History of European Morals, 1911</ref>  Converted out of a decadent, totally self-absorbed society, many Christians sold their goods and lands and used the proceeds to help the poor, support hospitals, take in orphans, free prisoners, and free slaves.  Liberation was frequent, especially on Easter and other special days of the church.  Church law from the early centuries allowed for liberation (called manumission) of slaves during church services.<ref>CAnnon LIIIV, The African Code CAnons, aslo called the Canons of he Fathers Assembled at Carthage, 419 A.D.</ref><ref>The Canons of the Council in Tuillo (also called the Quinisext Council, 692 A.D..</ref> Freeing slaves took great conviction and courage, for the Roman emperors issued edicts unfavorable to the practice.  Clement said in his Epistle to the Corinthians no 55, "Some Christians surrendered their own freedom to liberate others."<ref>Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor, Book III, Chapter IV</ref>

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) led many clergy under his authority in N Africa to free their slaves "as an act of piety".<ref>Augustine, "Of the Work of Monks", p. 25, Vol. 3, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers</ref> He boldly wrote a letter to the emperor urging a new law against slave traders, and showed great concern about the slave of children.<ref>The Saints, p. 72</ref>  He saw slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's plan, writing that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in His image, should have dominion man over man, but man over the beasts.<ref>Augustine, The City of God, chapter 15, p. 411, Vol. II, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers</ref>

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) led many clergy under his authority in N Africa to free their slaves "as an act of piety".<ref>Augustine, "Of the Work of Monks", p. 25, Vol. 3, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers</ref> He boldly wrote a letter to the emperor urging a new law against slave traders, and showed great concern about the slave of children.<ref>The Saints, p. 72</ref>  He saw slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's plan, writing that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in His image, should have dominion man over man, but man over the beasts.<ref>Augustine, The City of God, chapter 15, p. 411, Vol. II, Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers</ref>

Slavery in [[Poland]] was forbidden in the 15th century; in [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second enserfment.  

Slavery in [[Poland]] was forbidden in the 15th century; in [[Lithuania]], slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second enserfment.  

Slavery was a major institution in [[Russia]], and families facing starvation often sold themselves into slavery. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.  In 1723, when the [[Peter the Great]] converted the remaining household slaves into house serfs. <ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History]</ref> Serfdom was abolished in 1863 by Tsar [[Alexander II]]; however, most serfs had to pay the government for giving them land.

Slavery was a major institution in [[Russia]], and families facing starvation often sold themselves into slavery. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.  In 1723, when the [[Peter the Great]] converted the remaining household slaves into house serfs.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History]</ref> Serfdom was abolished in 1863 by Tsar [[Alexander II]]; however, most serfs had to pay the government for giving them land.

===African Slave Trade===

===African Slave Trade===

Islamic slavery had very high death rates.  It is estimated that 80% died on the long, harsh march through the Sahara.  

Islamic slavery had very high death rates.  It is estimated that 80% died on the long, harsh march through the Sahara.  

Castration of males was a very dominant feature of the Islamic slave trade.  Specific cities in the Sahara were given to this practice as the Islamic caravans passed through.  Such "eunuchs" brought the highest prices, purchased by rich Arab kings and princes as security agents for large harems.  It is estimated that 70 to 90% perished in the ordeal of castration.<ref>http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20120413180645205 University World News, ''Scholars Focus on Arab Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''</ref> Castration centers developed in the Mossi country; Damagaram in Niger; Borno in northeastern Nigeria; Kumasi in Ashantiland now Ghana; Kano, Nigeria (the largest--early British administrators wrote frequently about it); and Baguimi (also spelled Aaghirmi, in Chad Republic & along the Nigerian border--the best known).  Some African kings were already practicing castration of their enemies, but the Islamic slave trade institutionalized it.  This, along with the fact that any children born to slave women were usually killed at birth, is the reason there are few descendants of these slaves and little African diaspora in Arab Islamic lands.<ref>http://forums.eunuch.org/showthread.php?10192-Ottoman-Eunuchs</ref><ref>http://patachu.com/slavery-trans-Saharan-trade/</ref> Some early sources of direct evidence of the Islamic slave trade were al-Yakub, a 9th century Arab writer; Ibn Battuta, a 12th century eyewitness; Mansa Museh, 1324, and Leo Africanus, 1494-1554.

Castration of males was a very dominant feature of the Islamic slave trade.  Specific cities in the Sahara were given to this practice as the Islamic caravans passed through.  Such "eunuchs" brought the highest prices, purchased by rich Arab kings and princes as security agents for large harems.  It is estimated that 70 to 90% perished in the ordeal of castration.<ref>http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20120413180645205 University World News, ''Scholars Focus on Arab Trans-Saharan Slave Trade''</ref> Castration centers developed in the Mossi country; Damagaram in Niger; Borno in northeastern Nigeria; Kumasi in Ashantiland now Ghana; Kano, Nigeria (the largest—early British administrators wrote frequently about it); and Baguimi (also spelled Aaghirmi, in Chad Republic & along the Nigerian border—the best known).  Some African kings were already practicing castration of their enemies, but the Islamic slave trade institutionalized it.  This, along with the fact that any children born to slave women were usually killed at birth, is the reason there are few descendants of these slaves and little African diaspora in Arab Islamic lands.<ref>http://forums.eunuch.org/showthread.php?10192-Ottoman-Eunuchs</ref><ref>http://patachu.com/slavery-trans-Saharan-trade/</ref> Some early sources of direct evidence of the Islamic slave trade were al-Yakub, a 9th century Arab writer; Ibn Battuta, a 12th century eyewitness; Mansa Museh, 1324, and Leo Africanus, 1494-1554.

== The Transatlantic Slave Trade ==

== The Transatlantic Slave Trade ==

====White slaves====

====White slaves====

Between 1530 and 1780, Europeans including Britons and even some Americans were frequently taken captive and enslaved by privateers from the [[Barbary States]].  Estimates of so-called "white slavery" vary from as little as 50,000 to in the millions <ref>http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm</ref>. Generally Europeans enslaved by the [[corsairs]] were usually poorer sea merchants and city dwellers whose families were unable to pay the ransom necessary to free them.  Often the [[Pasha]] would purchase the female captives into his harem.  Many were forced to "go turk" or convert to "mohammadism" in order to stay with their children who were raised as Muslims.  Occasionally slaves would convert in order to escape harsher labors such as tending the oars in the corsairs <ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_print.html</ref>.

Between 1530 and 1780, Europeans including Britons and even some Americans were frequently taken captive and enslaved by privateers from the [[Barbary States]].  Estimates of so-called "white slavery" vary from as little as 50,000 to in the millions.<ref>http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm</ref>  Generally Europeans enslaved by the [[corsairs]] were usually poorer sea merchants and city dwellers whose families were unable to pay the ransom necessary to free them.  Often the [[Pasha]] would purchase the female captives into his harem.  Many were forced to "go turk" or convert to "mohammadism" in order to stay with their children who were raised as Muslims.  Occasionally slaves would convert in order to escape harsher labors such as tending the oars in the corsairs.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_print.html</ref>

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. Kefe was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets. In a process called "harvesting of the steppe" Crimean Tatars enslaved many Slavic peasants.

For a long time, until the early 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Middle East. Kefe was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets. In a process called "harvesting of the steppe" Crimean Tatars enslaved many Slavic peasants.

France had slavery in its Caribbean colonies and [[Condorcet]] (1743 - 1794), an influential [[philosophe]], rejected slavery as antithetical to Enlightenment morality. He  became a leader in the antislavery movement and in the 1780s attacked the institution of slavery on philosophical and moral grounds in his writings. After 1780, Condorcet took a leading, though secret, role in antislavery agitation by writing ''Reflections on Negro Slavery'' under the pseudonym Dr. Schwartz. In 1784, he was a founder and principal actor in La Société des Amis des Noirs, which sought to prepare for the eventual abolition of slavery. By 1794, Condorcet still supported colonization, but believed that a colonization based on liberal economics and civil equality could transform the world.

France had slavery in its Caribbean colonies and [[Condorcet]] (1743 - 1794), an influential [[philosophe]], rejected slavery as antithetical to Enlightenment morality. He  became a leader in the antislavery movement and in the 1780s attacked the institution of slavery on philosophical and moral grounds in his writings. After 1780, Condorcet took a leading, though secret, role in antislavery agitation by writing ''Reflections on Negro Slavery'' under the pseudonym Dr. Schwartz. In 1784, he was a founder and principal actor in La Société des Amis des Noirs, which sought to prepare for the eventual abolition of slavery. By 1794, Condorcet still supported colonization, but believed that a colonization based on liberal economics and civil equality could transform the world.

[[Napoleon]] (ruled 1799-1815) made a  major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue ([[Haiti]]) from ex-slaves under black leader [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted and killed off the whites and mulattoes. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and [[Guadeloupe]], where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever.  Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>  Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref>Steven Englund, ''Napoleon: A Political Life'' (2004). p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

[[Napoleon]] (ruled 1799-1815) made a  major adventure into the Caribbean—sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue ([[Haiti]]) from ex-slaves under black leader [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted and killed off the whites and mulattoes. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and [[Guadeloupe]], where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever.  Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic.<ref>Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. in [[Project MUSE]]</ref>  Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref>Steven Englund, ''Napoleon: A Political Life'' (2004). p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>

===United States===

===United States===

The first black slaves were brought to [[Jamestown]] Colony early on.  Originally, slavery was legal in every British American colony.  However, after the [[American Revolution]], the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that, since the new state constitution read, "All men are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties", it made slavery illegal.  By 1804, slavery had been abolished in every northern state.<ref>However, in many states, current slaves remained in servitude for the rest of their lives.</ref>

The first black slaves were brought to [[Jamestown]] Colony early on.  Originally, slavery was legal in every British American colony.  However, after the [[American Revolution]], the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that, since the new state constitution read, "All men are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties", it made slavery illegal.  By 1804, slavery had been abolished in every northern state.<ref>However, in many states, current slaves remained in servitude for the rest of their lives.</ref>

    

    

[[The South]] after 1800 became more militant in defense of slavery.  [[John C. Calhoun]] and other southerners (usually members of the [[Democratic Party]]) called it the South's "peculiar institution" and proclaimed it a good idea. Some proponents suggested it would also be a good idea for white workers who were living under worse conditions in Northern cities.<ref> Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, ''Slavery in White and Black: Class and Race in the Southern Slaveholders'' (2008)</ref>  It flourished in the Southern states until [[Abraham Lincoln]], a Republican, and his Union Army abolished it during the [[American Civil War]]. This was a case of racial slavery--the slaves were black, the owners were white.<ref> A few free blacks owned slaves--usually relatives they had purchased from whites. Indian tribes also had slaves, both Indian and black.</ref>

[[The South]] after 1800 became more militant in defense of slavery.  [[John C. Calhoun]] and other southerners (usually members of the [[Democratic Party]]) called it the South's "peculiar institution" and proclaimed it a good idea. Some proponents suggested it would also be a good idea for white workers who were living under worse conditions in Northern cities.<ref>Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, ''Slavery in White and Black: Class and Race in the Southern Slaveholders'' (2008)</ref>  It flourished in the Southern states until [[Abraham Lincoln]], a Republican, and his Union Army abolished it during the [[American Civil War]]. This was a case of racial slavery—the slaves were black, the owners were white.<ref>A few free blacks owned slaves--usually relatives they had purchased from whites. Indian tribes also had slaves, both Indian and black.</ref>

===British Empire===

===British Empire===

Emancipation of slaves in the British Caribbean became a major cause by the 1800s, when abolitionists such as [[William Wilberforce]] and [[John Wesley]] began speaking out against the evils of the system.<ref>[http://www.brycchancarey.com/abolition/wilberforce.htm William Wilberforce (1759-1833)]</ref> Wilberforce was supported in his efforts by [[John Newton]], a slave trader who became a Christian and then opposed the slave trade. In 1807 the [[House of Commons]] passed the Slave Trade Abolition Bill by a 283-16 vote. It made the international slave trade a crime of piracy and sent the Royal Navy to enforce it.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref> In 1808 the U.S. also outlawed the international trade. However, some slave traders evaded the prohibition--many were caught and hung, with the freed captives sent to [[Sierra Leone]]. Slavery remained legal inside the [[British Empire]] (including Canada) until 1833 when the government bought all the slaves from the owners<ref> Mostof the owners lived in great mansions in London, and appreciated the money.</ref> and freed them.<ref>The ex-slaves went through an apprenticeship process before gaining freedom. Andrea Curry ''Timeline: The Abolition of the Slave Trade'', British Heritage Magazine (May 2007)</ref> <ref>[http://slavetrade.parliament.uk/slavetrade/history/parliamentabolishestheslavetrade/draftdocument.html History: Parliament Abolishes the Slave Trade] Parliamentary House of Lords</ref>

Emancipation of slaves in the British Caribbean became a major cause by the 1800s, when abolitionists such as [[William Wilberforce]] and [[John Wesley]] began speaking out against the evils of the system.<ref>[http://www.brycchancarey.com/abolition/wilberforce.htm William Wilberforce (1759-1833)]</ref> Wilberforce was supported in his efforts by [[John Newton]], a slave trader who became a Christian and then opposed the slave trade. In 1807 the [[House of Commons]] passed the Slave Trade Abolition Bill by a 283-16 vote. It made the international slave trade a crime of piracy and sent the Royal Navy to enforce it.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref> In 1808 the U.S. also outlawed the international trade. However, some slave traders evaded the prohibition—many were caught and hung, with the freed captives sent to [[Sierra Leone]]. Slavery remained legal inside the [[British Empire]] (including Canada) until 1833 when the government bought all the slaves from the owners<ref>Mostof the owners lived in great mansions in London, and appreciated the money.</ref> and freed them.<ref>The ex-slaves went through an apprenticeship process before gaining freedom. Andrea Curry ''Timeline: The Abolition of the Slave Trade'', British Heritage Magazine (May 2007)</ref><ref>[http://slavetrade.parliament.uk/slavetrade/history/parliamentabolishestheslavetrade/draftdocument.html History: Parliament Abolishes the Slave Trade] Parliamentary House of Lords</ref>

===United States===

===United States===

In the United States, the northern states abolished slavery by 1803--most of the slaves there were house servants. In [[The South]], however, cotton made slavery very profitable and 11 states seceded in 1861 to protect their interest. [[Abraham Lincoln]] achieved the end of slavery in 1863-65, using the Army and the [[13th Amendment]]. In Cuba and Brazil, slavery was unprofitable and finally collapsed in the 1880s as few people wanted to buy slaves.

In the United States, the northern states abolished slavery by 1803—most of the slaves there were house servants. In [[The South]], however, cotton made slavery very profitable and 11 states seceded in 1861 to protect their interest. [[Abraham Lincoln]] achieved the end of slavery in 1863-65, using the Army and the [[13th Amendment]]. In Cuba and Brazil, slavery was unprofitable and finally collapsed in the 1880s as few people wanted to buy slaves.

===Abolitionists===

===Abolitionists===

*[[Harriet Tubman]], Underground Railroad. (1820 - 1913) <ref>http://www.heritageny.gov/Railroad/urny.cfm</ref>  Well-known associate of the Underground Railroad.  Acted as a spy and led raids to assist others in gaining their freedom.

*[[Harriet Tubman]], Underground Railroad. (1820 - 1913) <ref>http://www.heritageny.gov/Railroad/urny.cfm</ref>  Well-known associate of the Underground Railroad.  Acted as a spy and led raids to assist others in gaining their freedom.

*[[Frederick Douglass]], orator, writer and publisher.  (1817 - 1875) <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/447/000048303/</ref>  Respected leader of the abolitionist movement, consummate freedom seeker, orator and publisher.

*[[Frederick Douglass]], orator, writer and publisher.  (1817 - 1875) <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/447/000048303/</ref>  Respected leader of the abolitionist movement, consummate freedom seeker, orator and publisher.

*[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], unitarian minister and freethinker. (1803-1882) <ref>http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/ralphwaldoemerson.html </ref>  Expressed visceral public disapproval of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.  Exhorted people to "do the duty of the hour", and support abolition.   

*[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], unitarian minister and freethinker. (1803-1882) <ref>http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/ralphwaldoemerson.html</ref>  Expressed visceral public disapproval of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.  Exhorted people to "do the duty of the hour", and support abolition.   

*[[William Lloyd Garrison]], anti-slavery editor of the Liberator  (1805 - 1879); the single most imfluential abolitionist <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/966/000049819/</ref>  Founded the Liberator with partner Isaac Knapp in 1831.   

*[[William Lloyd Garrison]], anti-slavery editor of the Liberator  (1805 - 1879); the single most imfluential abolitionist <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/966/000049819/</ref>  Founded the Liberator with partner Isaac Knapp in 1831.   

*[[Elizur Wright]], abolitionist, freethinker. (1804-1885) <ref> http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0852788.html</ref> Became involved in the abolitionist movement while attending Yale university.  Eventually worked as a secretary with the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 and assumed the editorship of the Massachusetts Abolitionist in 1839.

*[[Elizur Wright]], abolitionist, freethinker. (1804-1885) <ref>http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0852788.html</ref> Became involved in the abolitionist movement while attending Yale university.  Eventually worked as a secretary with the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 and assumed the editorship of the Massachusetts Abolitionist in 1839.

*[[John Brown]] (1800-1859), tried to lead a slave rebellion in 1859; the slaves did not join him, but white Southerners became convinced there were many more John Browns to come if they stayed in the Union

*[[John Brown]] (1800-1859), tried to lead a slave rebellion in 1859; the slaves did not join him, but white Southerners became convinced there were many more John Browns to come if they stayed in the Union

*[[John Stuart Mill]],  philosopher, essayist.  (1806 - 1879) <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/147/000030057/</ref>  Wrote numerous essays on abolition during the American Civil War.  Asserted the war was being fought to abolish slavery, an unpopular political opinion at the time.

*[[John Stuart Mill]],  philosopher, essayist.  (1806 - 1879) <ref>http://www.nndb.com/people/147/000030057/</ref>  Wrote numerous essays on abolition during the American Civil War.  Asserted the war was being fought to abolish slavery, an unpopular political opinion at the time.

The system of slavery commonly diminished a person to the point where they would be regarded as a thing or an object to be owned. The Christian [[abolitionists]] disagreed with this valuation, and saw the New Testament in particular, and its ethos of love for neighbor as oneself, as supporting the abolition of slavery, and advanced an interpretation of the Bible which presented human value in terms of God's parental love for all people as His children (see [[human rights]]).<ref>[http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/bourne/bourne.html Bourne, George, 1780-1845, ''A Condensed Anti-Slavery Bible Argument; By a Citizen of Virginia'']</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3n4OGC-OoqIC&dq=God+Against+Slavery+George+B.+Cheever,&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=YCiuzJHs7T&sig=GyTdW1UZEO6eqV6XxdKv2v_SJF8&hl=en&ei=oaWRSvHyJpPDlAeXqdCjDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false  George B. Cheever, ''God Against Slavery'' (1875)]</ref>

The system of slavery commonly diminished a person to the point where they would be regarded as a thing or an object to be owned. The Christian [[abolitionists]] disagreed with this valuation, and saw the New Testament in particular, and its ethos of love for neighbor as oneself, as supporting the abolition of slavery, and advanced an interpretation of the Bible which presented human value in terms of God's parental love for all people as His children (see [[human rights]]).<ref>[http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/bourne/bourne.html Bourne, George, 1780-1845, ''A Condensed Anti-Slavery Bible Argument; By a Citizen of Virginia'']</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3n4OGC-OoqIC&dq=God+Against+Slavery+George+B.+Cheever,&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=YCiuzJHs7T&sig=GyTdW1UZEO6eqV6XxdKv2v_SJF8&hl=en&ei=oaWRSvHyJpPDlAeXqdCjDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false  George B. Cheever, ''God Against Slavery'' (1875)]</ref>

While requiring Christian obedience <ref>''Albert Barnes' Notes on the Bible'', Eph. 6:7; cf. Rm. 13:1</ref>  of slaves toward their masters, the New Testament also requires masters to exercise their duties in the fear of God, and prohibits threatening, abuse or unequal pay for slaves. ((Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1)  (1Cor. 7:21) It also commands slaves to obtain freedom if possible, and contains the record of the [[apostle Paul]] requiring that the escaped slave Onesimus be received back by his master Philemon, no longer "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved", even as Paul himself (Philemon 1:16,17)   

While requiring Christian obedience <ref>''Albert Barnes' Notes on the Bible'', Eph. 6:7; cf. Rm. 13:1</ref>  of slaves toward their masters, the New Testament also requires masters to exercise their duties in the fear of God, and prohibits threatening, abuse or unequal pay for slaves. (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1)  (1Cor. 7:21) It also commands slaves to obtain freedom if possible, and contains the record of the [[apostle Paul]] requiring that the escaped slave Onesimus be received back by his master Philemon, no longer "as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved", even as Paul himself (Philemon 1:16,17)   

[[Pat Robertson]], while acknowledging the Old Testament's teachings on slavery, argues that "we have moved in our conception of the value of human beings over the years" until we have realized that slavery is "terribly wrong."<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-DtlRyvC34 Pat Robertson on the Bible and slavery]</ref>

[[Pat Robertson]], while acknowledging the Old Testament's teachings on slavery, argues that "we have moved in our conception of the value of human beings over the years" until we have realized that slavery is "terribly wrong."<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-DtlRyvC34 Pat Robertson on the Bible and slavery]</ref>

===Curse of Ham===

===Curse of Ham===

Some Southern white theologians before the Civil War asserted that the slavery of blacks was the result the curse of Ham. However, there is no evidence that the curse had to do with skin color, and the descendants of [[Canaan]] most likely were not black, and it is generally concluded that they did not settle in [[Africa]].<ref>http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=70</ref><ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/q-aig/race-blacks.html</ref><ref>Full Life Study Bible, Zondervan Publishing Company (September 1992)</ref><ref>A Condensed Anti-slavery Bible Argument By George Bourne </ref>

Some Southern white theologians before the Civil War asserted that the slavery of blacks was the result the curse of Ham. However, there is no evidence that the curse had to do with skin color, and the descendants of [[Canaan]] most likely were not black, and it is generally concluded that they did not settle in [[Africa]].<ref>http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=70</ref><ref>http://www.christiananswers.net/q-aig/race-blacks.html</ref><ref>Full Life Study Bible, Zondervan Publishing Company (September 1992)</ref><ref>A Condensed Anti-slavery Bible Argument By George Bourne</ref>

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* [[American Civil War]]

* [[American Civil War]]

===Reference===

===References===

* Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph C. Miller, eds. ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (1999), very good reference

* Finkelman, Paul, and Joseph C. Miller, eds. ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' (1999), very good reference

* Morgan, Kenneth. ''Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Slavery-British-Empire-Africa-America/dp/0192892916/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241544745&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* Morgan, Kenneth. ''Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Slavery-British-Empire-Africa-America/dp/0192892916/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1241544745&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]