Changes

Mali has three distinct natural regions.  The southern region consists of a tropical savannah, while the central region, or Sahel, is semi-arid; both of these regions have the Niger River flowing through towards the west.  The remaining region, the Sahara Desert, occupies more than half the country to the north.

Mali has three distinct natural regions.  The southern region consists of a tropical savannah, while the central region, or Sahel, is semi-arid; both of these regions have the Niger River flowing through towards the west.  The remaining region, the Sahara Desert, occupies more than half the country to the north.

*Area: 1,240,278 sq. km. (474,764 sq. mi.); about the size of Texas and California combined.

*Area: 1,240,278 sq. km. (474,764 sq. mi.); about the size of Texas and California combined.

*Cities: Capital--Bamako (pop. 1 million). Other cities--Segou (200,000), Sikasso (120,000), Mopti (90,000), Gao (65,000), Kayes (65,000), Timbuktu (38,000).  

*Cities: Capital—Bamako (pop. 1 million). Other cities—Segou (200,000), Sikasso (120,000), Mopti (90,000), Gao (65,000), Kayes (65,000), Timbuktu (38,000).  

*Terrain: Savannah and desert.  

*Terrain: Savannah and desert.  

*Climate: Semitropical in the south; arid in the north.

*Climate: Semitropical in the south; arid in the north.

Although each ethnic group speaks a separate language, nearly 80% of Malians communicate in Bambara, the common language of the marketplace. Malians enjoy a relative harmony rare in African states.

Although each ethnic group speaks a separate language, nearly 80% of Malians communicate in Bambara, the common language of the marketplace. Malians enjoy a relative harmony rare in African states.

*Nationality: Noun and adjective--Malian(s).

*Nationality: Noun and adjective—Malian(s).

*Population (2007 est.): 11,995,402.  

*Population (2007 est.): 11,995,402.  

*Annual growth rate: 2.4%.  

*Annual growth rate: 2.4%.  

*Religions: Islam 90%, indigenous 6%, Christian 4%.  

*Religions: Islam 90%, indigenous 6%, Christian 4%.  

*Languages: French (official) and Bambara (spoken by about 80% of the population).  

*Languages: French (official) and Bambara (spoken by about 80% of the population).  

*Education: Attendance--64.3% (primary). Literacy--31%.  

*Education: Attendance—64.3% (primary). Literacy—31%.  

*Health: Infant mortality rate--121/1,000. Life expectancy--47 yrs.  

*Health: Infant mortality rate—121/1,000. Life expectancy—47 yrs.  

*Work force (4 million): Agriculture--70%; services--15%; industry and commerce--15%.

*Work force (4 million): Agriculture—70%; services—15%; industry and commerce—15%.

==Government and Political Conditions==

==Government and Political Conditions==

===Principal Government Officials===  

===Principal Government Officials===  

*President--Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta

*President—Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta

*Prime Minister--Modibo Keita

*Prime Minister—Modibo Keita

*Minister of Foreign Affairs--Moctar Ouane  

*Minister of Foreign Affairs—Moctar Ouane  

*Minister of Economy and Finance--Sanoussi Toure

*Minister of Economy and Finance—Sanoussi Toure

*Minister of Industry, Investment, and Commerce--Ahmadou Abdoulaye Diallo

*Minister of Industry, Investment, and Commerce—Ahmadou Abdoulaye Diallo

*Minister of Defense--Natie Plea

*Minister of Defense—Natie Plea

===Foreign Relations===

===Foreign Relations===

==Economy==

==Economy==

Mali's per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of $470 (2006 est.) places it among the world's 10 poorest nations. Its potential wealth lies in mining and the production of agricultural commodities, livestock, and fish. Agricultural activities occupy 70% of Mali's labor force and provide 36% of the GDP. Cotton, gold, and livestock made up 80%-90% of total export earnings in Mali in 2006. Small-scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector, with subsistence farming--of cereals, primarily sorghum, millet, and maize--on about 90% of the 1.4 million hectares (3.4 million acres) under cultivation. The high cost of petroleum products, the fall in the world market price for cotton and gold, and corresponding loss of customs revenues put pressure on the economy and led the government to be very tight on cash disbursements in recent years. In addition, the 2002-2003 closure of the main import/export route to the port of Abidjan increased the pressure on the fragile Malian economy. Nonetheless, a focus on quality cotton production and double-digit increases in cereal and gold production boosted real GDP growth from 2.2% in 2004 to 5.1% in 2005.

Mali's per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of $470 (2006 est.) places it among the world's 10 poorest nations. Its potential wealth lies in mining and the production of agricultural commodities, livestock, and fish. Agricultural activities occupy 70% of Mali's labor force and provide 36% of the GDP. Cotton, gold, and livestock made up 80%-90% of total export earnings in Mali in 2006. Small-scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector, with subsistence farming—of cereals, primarily sorghum, millet, and maize—on about 90% of the 1.4 million hectares (3.4 million acres) under cultivation. The high cost of petroleum products, the fall in the world market price for cotton and gold, and corresponding loss of customs revenues put pressure on the economy and led the government to be very tight on cash disbursements in recent years. In addition, the 2002-2003 closure of the main import/export route to the port of Abidjan increased the pressure on the fragile Malian economy. Nonetheless, a focus on quality cotton production and double-digit increases in cereal and gold production boosted real GDP growth from 2.2% in 2004 to 5.1% in 2005.

*GDP (2008 est.): $15.045 billion.  

*GDP (2008 est.): $15.045 billion.  

*Avg. annual growth rate (2006 est.): 5.1%.  

*Avg. annual growth rate (2006 est.): 5.1%.  

*Avg. inflation rate (2005): -1.1%.

*Avg. inflation rate (2005): -1.1%.

*Natural resources: Gold, phosphate, kaolin, salt, and limestone currently mined; deposits of oil, bauxite, iron ore, manganese, lithium, and uranium are known or suspected.  

*Natural resources: Gold, phosphate, kaolin, salt, and limestone currently mined; deposits of oil, bauxite, iron ore, manganese, lithium, and uranium are known or suspected.  

*Agriculture, livestock, and fishery (36% of GDP): Products--millet, sorghum, corn, rice, livestock, sugar, cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), and tobacco.  

*Agriculture, livestock, and fishery (36% of GDP): Products—millet, sorghum, corn, rice, livestock, sugar, cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), and tobacco.  

*Industry (24% of GDP): Types--food processing, textiles, cigarettes, fish processing, metalworking, light manufacturing, plastics, and beverage bottling.  

*Industry (24% of GDP): Types—food processing, textiles, cigarettes, fish processing, metalworking, light manufacturing, plastics, and beverage bottling.  

*Services (40% of GDP): Telecommunications, construction.

*Services (40% of GDP): Telecommunications, construction.

*Trade (2004): Exports--$1,078 million: cotton and cotton products, animals, fish, tannery products, groundnuts, diamonds, and gold. Major markets--France, Switzerland, Italy, Thailand, Cote d'Ivoire, and Algeria. Imports--$1,084 million: food, machinery and spare parts, vehicles, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, textiles. Major suppliers--France, Cote d'Ivoire, Belgium, Luxembourg, U.S. ($43 million), Germany, and Japan.

*Trade (2004): Exports--$1,078 million: cotton and cotton products, animals, fish, tannery products, groundnuts, diamonds, and gold. Major markets—France, Switzerland, Italy, Thailand, Cote d'Ivoire, and Algeria. Imports--$1,084 million: food, machinery and spare parts, vehicles, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, textiles. Major suppliers—France, Cote d'Ivoire, Belgium, Luxembourg, U.S. ($43 million), Germany, and Japan.

The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River between Bamako and Mopti and extends south to the borders of Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso. Average rainfall varies in this region from 50 centimeters per year (20 in.) around Mopti to 140 centimeters (55 in.) in the south near Sikasso. This area is most important for the production of cotton, rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops.

The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River between Bamako and Mopti and extends south to the borders of Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso. Average rainfall varies in this region from 50 centimeters per year (20 in.) around Mopti to 140 centimeters (55 in.) in the south near Sikasso. This area is most important for the production of cotton, rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops.

Rice is grown extensively along the banks of the Niger between Ségou and Mopti, with the most important rice-producing area at the Office du Niger, located north of Ségou toward the Mauritanian border. Using water diverted from the Niger, the Office du Niger irrigates about 80,000 hectares of land for rice and sugarcane production. About one-third of Mali's paddy rice is produced at the Office du Niger.

Rice is grown extensively along the banks of the Niger between Ségou and Mopti, with the most important rice-producing area at the Office du Niger, located north of Ségou toward the Mauritanian border. Using water diverted from the Niger, the Office du Niger irrigates about 80,000 hectares of land for rice and sugarcane production. About one-third of Mali's paddy rice is produced at the Office du Niger.

The Niger River also is an important source of fish, providing food for riverside communities; the surplus--smoked, salted, and dried--is exported. Due to drought and diversion of river water for agriculture, fish production has steadily declined since the early 1980s. The government has started plans to develop fish breeding, mainly in the Niger delta, in order to boost fish production.

The Niger River also is an important source of fish, providing food for riverside communities; the surplus—smoked, salted, and dried—is exported. Due to drought and diversion of river water for agriculture, fish production has steadily declined since the early 1980s. The government has started plans to develop fish breeding, mainly in the Niger delta, in order to boost fish production.

Sorghum is planted extensively in the drier parts of the country and along the banks of the Niger in eastern Mali, as well as in the lakebeds in the Niger delta region. During the dry season, farmers near the town of Diré have cultivated wheat on irrigated fields for hundreds of years. Peanuts are grown throughout the country but are concentrated in the area around Kita, west of Bamako.

Sorghum is planted extensively in the drier parts of the country and along the banks of the Niger in eastern Mali, as well as in the lakebeds in the Niger delta region. During the dry season, farmers near the town of Diré have cultivated wheat on irrigated fields for hundreds of years. Peanuts are grown throughout the country but are concentrated in the area around Kita, west of Bamako.

With the technical support of U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded projects, private cooperatives developed a regional border market in the southern city of Sikasso. Livestock professionals contributed to a steady increase in cattle exports. Sheep, goats, and camels are raised to the exclusion of cattle in the dry areas north and east of Timbuktu.

With the technical support of U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded projects, private cooperatives developed a regional border market in the southern city of Sikasso. Livestock professionals contributed to a steady increase in cattle exports. Sheep, goats, and camels are raised to the exclusion of cattle in the dry areas north and east of Timbuktu.

Until the mid-1960s, Mali was self-sufficient in grains--millet, sorghum, rice, and corn. Diminished harvests during bad years, a growing population, changing dietary habits, and, most importantly, policy constraints on agricultural production resulted in grain deficits almost every year from 1965 to 1986. Production has rebounded since 1987, however, thanks to agricultural policy reforms undertaken by the government and supported by the Western donor nations. Liberalization of producer prices and an open cereals market have created incentives to production. These reforms, combined with adequate rainfall, successful integrated rural agriculture programs in the south, and improved management of the Office du Niger, have led to surplus cereal production over the past 5 years. Except for 2002 and 2004, annual rainfall, critical for Mali's agriculture, has been at or above average since 1993. Cereal production, including rice, grew annually until 2002, when the country experienced a food production deficit, alleviated by donors' massive contributions to food security stocks. Locust infestation during the 2004 agricultural campaign prompted the government to seek assistance from the donor community in order to fill the gap in the regions that had a significant production deficit. The government anticipated a record harvest of 3.4 million tons in 2006/2007 due to abundant rainfall, 16% more than the average production of the previous 5 years. Mali’s cotton production grew from 500,000 tons in 1997 to a record 620,000 tons in 2003-2004, making Mali the largest cotton producer on the African continent. In 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, cotton production retreated respectively to 590,000 and 500,000 tons as the parastatal cotton company CMDT focused on quality of harvested cotton rather than quantity.

Until the mid-1960s, Mali was self-sufficient in grains—millet, sorghum, rice, and corn. Diminished harvests during bad years, a growing population, changing dietary habits, and, most importantly, policy constraints on agricultural production resulted in grain deficits almost every year from 1965 to 1986. Production has rebounded since 1987, however, thanks to agricultural policy reforms undertaken by the government and supported by the Western donor nations. Liberalization of producer prices and an open cereals market have created incentives to production. These reforms, combined with adequate rainfall, successful integrated rural agriculture programs in the south, and improved management of the Office du Niger, have led to surplus cereal production over the past 5 years. Except for 2002 and 2004, annual rainfall, critical for Mali's agriculture, has been at or above average since 1993. Cereal production, including rice, grew annually until 2002, when the country experienced a food production deficit, alleviated by donors' massive contributions to food security stocks. Locust infestation during the 2004 agricultural campaign prompted the government to seek assistance from the donor community in order to fill the gap in the regions that had a significant production deficit. The government anticipated a record harvest of 3.4 million tons in 2006/2007 due to abundant rainfall, 16% more than the average production of the previous 5 years. Mali’s cotton production grew from 500,000 tons in 1997 to a record 620,000 tons in 2003-2004, making Mali the largest cotton producer on the African continent. In 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, cotton production retreated respectively to 590,000 and 500,000 tons as the parastatal cotton company CMDT focused on quality of harvested cotton rather than quantity.

Mining is still a growing industry in Mali, with gold accounting for some 80% of mining activity. There are considerable proven reserves of other minerals not currently exploited. In 2002, gold briefly became Mali's number one export, before cotton and livestock. There are two large private investments in gold mining: Anglo-American ($250 million) and Randgold ($140 million), both multinational South African companies located respectively in the western and southern part of the country.

Mining is still a growing industry in Mali, with gold accounting for some 80% of mining activity. There are considerable proven reserves of other minerals not currently exploited. In 2002, gold briefly became Mali's number one export, before cotton and livestock. There are two large private investments in gold mining: Anglo-American ($250 million) and Randgold ($140 million), both multinational South African companies located respectively in the western and southern part of the country.

With the encouragement of the major donors and international financial institutions, the Government of Mali initiated a series of adjustment and stabilization programs beginning in 1982. Measures were introduced to reduce budgetary deficits, public enterprise operating losses, and public sector arrears.

With the encouragement of the major donors and international financial institutions, the Government of Mali initiated a series of adjustment and stabilization programs beginning in 1982. Measures were introduced to reduce budgetary deficits, public enterprise operating losses, and public sector arrears.

Under the economic reform program signed with the World Bank and the IMF in 1988, the government has taken a number of steps to liberalize the regulatory environment and thereby attract private investment. For example, applications for the establishment of business enterprises now enjoy "one window"--guichet unique--processing through a single ministry, allowing a business to be established in a matter of days. In addition, price controls on consumer goods have been progressively eliminated; the last price control, on petroleum products, was removed on July 1, 1992. Import quotas were eliminated in 1988, and export taxes were dropped in 1991. The Commerce Code was revised in 1991 to remove impediments to commercial activity. The investment and the mining codes also were revised in the early 1990s in order to present a good investment climate. Also in 1991, a system of commercial and administrative courts was established to handle private trade complaints and claims against the government.

Under the economic reform program signed with the World Bank and the IMF in 1988, the government has taken a number of steps to liberalize the regulatory environment and thereby attract private investment. For example, applications for the establishment of business enterprises now enjoy "one window"—guichet unique—processing through a single ministry, allowing a business to be established in a matter of days. In addition, price controls on consumer goods have been progressively eliminated; the last price control, on petroleum products, was removed on July 1, 1992. Import quotas were eliminated in 1988, and export taxes were dropped in 1991. The Commerce Code was revised in 1991 to remove impediments to commercial activity. The investment and the mining codes also were revised in the early 1990s in order to present a good investment climate. Also in 1991, a system of commercial and administrative courts was established to handle private trade complaints and claims against the government.

During the period 1988-96, the government implemented a large reform program of the public enterprise sector, including the privatization of 16 enterprises, the partial privatization of 12, and the liquidation of 20; others were restructured. Among the 20 enterprises left, eight were privatized, including the largest--the electricity and water company (Energie du Mali, or EDM), and the textile company (Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA). The privatization of EDM was initially considered as a success, but the company returned to the government portfolio in mid-2005 when the French concessionaire SAUR and the Government of Mali agreed to end the 20-year concession. The government completed the concession of the railroad company to the Salt Lake City-based Savage Corporation in 2005. The privatization process for the cotton seed oil factory (Huilerie Cotonniere du Mali, or Huicoma), was completed in June 2005. The privatization completion date for two major companies--Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT)--was still uncertain as of 2008.

During the period 1988-96, the government implemented a large reform program of the public enterprise sector, including the privatization of 16 enterprises, the partial privatization of 12, and the liquidation of 20; others were restructured. Among the 20 enterprises left, eight were privatized, including the largest—the electricity and water company (Energie du Mali, or EDM), and the textile company (Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA). The privatization of EDM was initially considered as a success, but the company returned to the government portfolio in mid-2005 when the French concessionaire SAUR and the Government of Mali agreed to end the 20-year concession. The government completed the concession of the railroad company to the Salt Lake City-based Savage Corporation in 2005. The privatization process for the cotton seed oil factory (Huilerie Cotonniere du Mali, or Huicoma), was completed in June 2005. The privatization completion date for two major companies—Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT)--was still uncertain as of 2008.

In 1999, the executive board of the IMF approved a 3-year loan for Mali under the enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) to support the government's economic reform program, for a total of $63 million. For the third ESAF covering the period April 1999-March 2002, the IMF board of directors urged the Malian authorities to persevere with their policy of fiscal consolidation, including the modernizing of the tax system, and to deepen and accelerate structural reforms and rehabilitate the judicial system. Mali was selected in 1999 as an eligible country to the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program and has been benefiting from the program since FY 2000 as a budgetary support. In April 2003, Mali reached the HIPC completion point with the result that former debt payments will now be used to fund poverty alleviation programs. Total debt relief under the original and the enhanced HIPC initiative will amount to about $539 million, representing a 37% reduction. As one of 14 African nations that have reached the HIPC completion point, Mali will benefit from multilateral debt forgiveness under the G8 Gleneagles debt forgiveness agreement.

In 1999, the executive board of the IMF approved a 3-year loan for Mali under the enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) to support the government's economic reform program, for a total of $63 million. For the third ESAF covering the period April 1999-March 2002, the IMF board of directors urged the Malian authorities to persevere with their policy of fiscal consolidation, including the modernizing of the tax system, and to deepen and accelerate structural reforms and rehabilitate the judicial system. Mali was selected in 1999 as an eligible country to the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program and has been benefiting from the program since FY 2000 as a budgetary support. In April 2003, Mali reached the HIPC completion point with the result that former debt payments will now be used to fund poverty alleviation programs. Total debt relief under the original and the enhanced HIPC initiative will amount to about $539 million, representing a 37% reduction. As one of 14 African nations that have reached the HIPC completion point, Mali will benefit from multilateral debt forgiveness under the G8 Gleneagles debt forgiveness agreement.

==History==

==History==

[[File:Mali Great Mosque of Djenne.jpg|thumb|360px|Great Mosque of Djenné.]]

[[File:Mali Great Mosque of Djenne.jpg|thumb|360px|Great Mosque of Djenné.]]

Malians express great pride in their ancestry. Mali is the cultural heir to the succession of ancient African empires--Ghana, Malinké, and Songhai--that occupied the West African savannah. These empires controlled Saharan trade and were in touch with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern centers of civilization.

Malians express great pride in their ancestry. Mali is the cultural heir to the succession of ancient African empires—Ghana, Malinké, and Songhai—that occupied the West African savannah. These empires controlled Saharan trade and were in touch with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern centers of civilization.

The Ghana Empire, dominated by the Soninke or Saracolé people and centered in the area along the Malian-Mauritanian frontier, was a powerful trading state from about A.D. 700 to 1075. The Malinke Kingdom of Mali had its origins on the upper Niger River in the 11th century. Expanding rapidly in the 13th century under the leadership of Soundiata Keita, it reached its height about 1325, when it conquered Timbuktu and Gao. Thereafter, the kingdom began to decline, and by the 15th century, it controlled only a small fraction of its former domain.

The Ghana Empire, dominated by the Soninke or Saracolé people and centered in the area along the Malian-Mauritanian frontier, was a powerful trading state from about A.D. 700 to 1075. The Malinke Kingdom of Mali had its origins on the upper Niger River in the 11th century. Expanding rapidly in the 13th century under the leadership of Soundiata Keita, it reached its height about 1325, when it conquered Timbuktu and Gao. Thereafter, the kingdom began to decline, and by the 15th century, it controlled only a small fraction of its former domain.

In January 1959, Soudan joined Senegal to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent within the French Community on June 20, 1960. The federation collapsed on August 20, 1960, when Senegal seceded. On September 22, Soudan proclaimed itself the Republic of Mali and withdrew from the French Community.

In January 1959, Soudan joined Senegal to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent within the French Community on June 20, 1960. The federation collapsed on August 20, 1960, when Senegal seceded. On September 22, Soudan proclaimed itself the Republic of Mali and withdrew from the French Community.

President [[Modibo Keita]]--whose party Union Soudanaise du Rassemblement Democratique Africain (US/RDA) had dominated preindependence politics--moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization. A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses.

President [[Modibo Keita]]—whose party Union Soudanaise du Rassemblement Democratique Africain (US/RDA) had dominated preindependence politics—moved quickly to declare a single-party state and to pursue a socialist policy based on extensive nationalization. A continuously deteriorating economy led to a decision to rejoin the Franc Zone in 1967 and modify some of the economic excesses.

On November 19, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. Moussa Traore as President. The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought.

On November 19, 1968, a group of young officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member Military Committee for National Liberation (CMLN), with Lt. Moussa Traore as President. The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought.