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'''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer hired by Spain to reach Asia in 1491; instead he discovered a continent, and in four voyages explored the [[West Indies]] from 1492 to 1502.  His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas, and Columbus became both a symbol of the new world and an iconic hero for the age of exploration.

'''Christopher Columbus''' (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer hired by Spain to reach Asia in 1491; instead he discovered a continent, and in four voyages explored the [[West Indies]] from 1492 to 1502.  His discovery resulted in Europeans exploring and settling the Americas, and Columbus became both a symbol of the new world and an iconic hero for the age of exploration.

As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.<ref> Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" ''Continuity'' 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446 </ref>  

As conservative historian Wilcomb Washburn explains, if Columbus had not discovered the New World, the process of European discovery might have been very different. Rather than standing as a symbol of inexorable forces, Columbus is better seen as a representative of the spirit of inquiry, Christian religious zeal, and the notable achievements of Western Civilization.<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Columbus: Agent Of The Inevitable?" ''Continuity'' 1992 (16): 57-63. 0277-1446</ref>  

==Early career==

==Early career==

Hearing many tales of legendary Atlantic voyages and rumors of land to the west of Madeira and the Azores, he studied books and maps.  Columbus became convinced that Asia could be reached by sailing due west from Europe. Columbus's ideas about the size of the world and a westward route to Asia probably evolved piecemeal. His conjectures were based on discoveries of islands in the Atlantic (the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, the Madeiras), rumors of additional islands, findings of unusual plant material and even human bodies drifting in from the western ocean, and by wide reading in academic geography, including ''Imago mundi'' (Image of the World) by the French theologian Pierre d' Ailly and the ''Geographia'' the ancient scientist Ptolemy.<ref>The people Columbus dealt with all knew the earth was round.</ref>

Hearing many tales of legendary Atlantic voyages and rumors of land to the west of Madeira and the Azores, he studied books and maps.  Columbus became convinced that Asia could be reached by sailing due west from Europe. Columbus's ideas about the size of the world and a westward route to Asia probably evolved piecemeal. His conjectures were based on discoveries of islands in the Atlantic (the Canaries, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, the Madeiras), rumors of additional islands, findings of unusual plant material and even human bodies drifting in from the western ocean, and by wide reading in academic geography, including ''Imago mundi'' (Image of the World) by the French theologian Pierre d' Ailly and the ''Geographia'' the ancient scientist Ptolemy.<ref>The people Columbus dealt with all knew the earth was round.</ref>

[[File:PUERTO de Palos.jpg|thumb|left|Port of Palos in Spain; painting by Evaristo Domínguez.]]

[[File:PUERTO de Palos.jpg|thumb|left|Port of Palos in Spain; painting by Evaristo Domínguez.]]

He accepted Marco Polo's erroneous location for Japan-- as 1,500 miles east of China--and Ptolemy's underestimation of the circumference of the Earth. Therefore, he concluded, Japan was about 3,000 miles to the west of Portugal--which was barely within the extreme range of existing ships.  In 1484, Columbus sought support for an exploratory voyage from King John II of Portugal, but he was rejected.  The Portuguese believed it was too far for their ships.

He accepted Marco Polo's erroneous location for Japan—as 1,500 miles east of China—and Ptolemy's underestimation of the circumference of the Earth. Therefore, he concluded, Japan was about 3,000 miles to the west of Portugal—which was barely within the extreme range of existing ships.  In 1484, Columbus sought support for an exploratory voyage from King John II of Portugal, but he was rejected.  The Portuguese believed it was too far for their ships.

In 1485 Columbus went to Spain, where he spent seven years trying to get support from Queen [[Isabella I]] of Castile.  She favored his cause and provided a salary.  Once Spain was unified in 1492, Isabella and her husband King Ferdinand of Aragon were ready to fund a major voyage. The moderate cost would be offset by spectacular returns, they figured. They promised to grant Columbus noble status and the titles of admiral, viceroy, and governor-general for any islands or mainland areas he discovered. The office of admiral would give Columbus the right to judge disputes that arose in commercial matters, that of viceroy would make him the personal representative of the monarch, and that of governor-general would enable him to act as supreme civil and military authority.

In 1485 Columbus went to Spain, where he spent seven years trying to get support from Queen [[Isabella I]] of Castile.  She favored his cause and provided a salary.  Once Spain was unified in 1492, Isabella and her husband King Ferdinand of Aragon were ready to fund a major voyage. The moderate cost would be offset by spectacular returns, they figured. They promised to grant Columbus noble status and the titles of admiral, viceroy, and governor-general for any islands or mainland areas he discovered. The office of admiral would give Columbus the right to judge disputes that arose in commercial matters, that of viceroy would make him the personal representative of the monarch, and that of governor-general would enable him to act as supreme civil and military authority.

==First Voyage==

==First Voyage==

Isabella furnished him with three ships ([[The Niña]], [[The Pinta]] and The [[Santa Maria]]). Leaving August 3 1492, from the port of Palos, he sailed for months without sight of land while his crew was becoming increasingly disillusioned with the voyage believing themselves to be sailing towards their deaths; they began plotting mutiny.  

Isabella furnished him with three ships ([[The Niña]], [[The Pinta]] and The [[Santa Maria]]). Leaving August 3, 1492, from the port of Palos, he sailed for months without sight of land while his crew was becoming increasingly disillusioned with the voyage believing themselves to be sailing towards their deaths; they began plotting mutiny.  

[[Image:Christopher-columbus.jpg|thumb|250px|October 12, 1492]]

[[Image:Christopher-columbus.jpg|thumb|250px|October 12, 1492]]

==The Memory of Columbus==

==The Memory of Columbus==

Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a malleable and durable American symbol. Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia (an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty); as Columbus (an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned [[Manifest Destiny]]); and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities. During this evolution of "discovering" Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.<ref> Thomas J. Schlereth, "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR] </Ref>

Columbus has remained since the quest for independence a malleable and durable American symbol. Although ignored during most of the colonial period, he was, during the 1760s-1890s, interpreted and reinterpreted to fit our national character and used to mold a collective identity. This progress can be traced over three periods: as Columbia (an allegorical figure symbolizing liberty); as Columbus (an individual masculine explorer who sanctioned [[Manifest Destiny]]); and as Columbianism, a late-19th-century patriotic symbol involving cultural and political hegemony and various ethnic and religious identities. During this evolution of "discovering" Columbus, a significant amount of material culture surfaced in American art, monuments, coinage, and in various civic events. This led to a multiple set of uses of Columbus as a model or official icon by various organizations to help shape their identities. The discovery of Columbus also grew as new methods of communication and the development of various media in the visual arts replaced the oral tradition and elementary school prose of the 18th century. This adaption of Columbus as a national symbol created conflicting contexts for many, such as Protestants ignoring Columbus's Catholicism. All three periods signify steps in the nation's search for self-identity.<ref>Thomas J. Schlereth, "Columbia, Columbus, And Columbianism." ''Journal of American History'' 1992 79(3): 937-968. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080794  in JSTOR]</ref>

[[File:Cordero Colon ante los reyes catolicos.jpg|thumb|Christopher Columbus at the court of the Spanish Catholic Kings by [[Juan Cordero]].]]

[[File:Cordero Colon ante los reyes catolicos.jpg|thumb|Christopher Columbus at the court of the Spanish Catholic Kings by [[Juan Cordero]].]]

In the 19th century the works of historians [[Washington Irving]], [[George Bancroft]], and [[William Prescott]] created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in ''A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed "savages" to whom he introduced a "superior" culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity.  

In the 19th century the works of historians [[Washington Irving]], [[George Bancroft]], and [[William Prescott]] created the scholarly foundations for American celebration of Columbus's achievements. Irving created a highly romantic description of Columbus's landing in ''A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' (1828). 19th century American painters and graphic artists conjured up romantic images to match those found in the book. The image portrayed in Irving's book and by the artists shows Columbus finding a sparsely populated virgin land inhabited by lightly clothed "savages" to whom he introduced a "superior" culture and the blessings of Christianity. The mythical image also claims that Columbus planted the seeds of future American economic prosperity.  

Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.<ref>http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day</ref>

Columbus did return to Spain with a number of Indian slaves, and that slave labor was used in his quest for gold. Native populations died out primarily because of exposure to new Old World diseases.<ref>http://www.history.com/content/columbusday/holiday-history History of Columbus Day</ref>

Leftist protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of frequently used the term "genocide" to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy "maleficent myths" about the past and expose complex origins of "current fortunes and misfortunes" without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.<ref>James Axtell, "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370 </ref>

Leftist protesters of the 1992 quincentennial celebrations of frequently used the term "genocide" to describe European treatment of the Indians, but they never defined genocide or provided sound evidence that Europeans practiced genocide. Historians should recognize the legitimate emotional source of these complaints, but counsel against the use of moral blackmail by groups who have something to gain from characterizing European treatment of Indians as genocidal. Historians should work to destroy "maleficent myths" about the past and expose complex origins of "current fortunes and misfortunes" without holding the descendants of those who wronged other peoples accountable for the deeds of their ancestors.<ref>James Axtell, "The Moral Dimensions of 1492," ''Historian'' 1993 56(1): 17-28. 0018-2370</ref>

Besides the District of Columbia, and the province of British Columbia (Canada), numerous cities are named after Columbus, notably in Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Ohio.

Besides the District of Columbia, and the province of British Columbia (Canada), numerous cities are named after Columbus, notably in Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Ohio.

===Legacy of Columbus===

===Legacy of Columbus===

Columbus was a devout Christian, a fact that is often downplayed and ignored, who was rumored to have never sworn - unusual for a sailor at that time. On his ship his shipmates would frequently engage in religious worship. After his death it was thought he should have been named a saint for bringing the Christian faith to half the known world while Spain sent thousands of missionaries to the America's. It is because of Columbus that Latin American has the highest number of professing Christians<ref>http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/1992/issue35/3502.html</ref>.

Columbus was a devout Christian, a fact that is often downplayed and ignored, who was rumored to have never sworn - unusual for a sailor at that time. On his ship his shipmates would frequently engage in religious worship. After his death it was thought he should have been named a saint for bringing the Christian faith to half the known world while Spain sent thousands of missionaries to the America's. It is because of Columbus that Latin American has the highest number of professing Christians.<ref>http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/1992/issue35/3502.html</ref>

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* [http://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/europe-1400-1789/christopher-columbus.jsp online books about Columbus]

* [http://www.questia.com/library/history/european-history/europe-1400-1789/christopher-columbus.jsp online books about Columbus]

* Taviani, Paolo Emilio. ''Columbus, The Great Adventure: His Life, His Times, and His Voyages'' (1991), by the leading Italian expert

* Taviani, Paolo Emilio. ''Columbus, The Great Adventure: His Life, His Times, and His Voyages'' (1991), by the leading Italian expert

* Watts, Pauline Moffitt. "Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies'". ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 90, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 73-102; emphasizes complex religious motivations [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1860749 in JSTOR]

* Watts, Pauline Moffitt. "Prophecy and Discovery: On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies'". ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 90, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp.&nbsp;73–102; emphasizes complex religious motivations [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1860749 in JSTOR]

*  Wilford, John Noble. ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy'' (1991), the best popular biography; very well written

*  Wilford, John Noble. ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy'' (1991), the best popular biography; very well written