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The [[Great Wall of China]] was designed to keep enemies out and protect their country. Construction took centuries, and was begun during the Qin dynasty, 221-206 BC. In 246 BC the emperor Qin Shi Huang Di, whose original name was Ying Zheng, came to power in the state of Qin.  By 221 BC, he had unified China using the Legalistic philosophy of his state to encourage colonization and to build up the military in what was previously a minor desert state.   

The [[Great Wall of China]] was designed to keep enemies out and protect their country. Construction took centuries, and was begun during the Qin dynasty, 221-206 BC. In 246 BC the emperor Qin Shi Huang Di, whose original name was Ying Zheng, came to power in the state of Qin.  By 221 BC, he had unified China using the Legalistic philosophy of his state to encourage colonization and to build up the military in what was previously a minor desert state.   

The Great Wall winds some 2,400 km (1,500 mi) along the edge of the Mongolian plateau from Gansu Province in the west to the Yellow Sea in the east. Its width ranges from 4 to 12 m (12 to 40 ft) and its height from 6 to 15 m (20 to 50 ft). It makes possible much more effective military defense of China from invaders.

The Great Wall winds some 2,400 km (1,500 mi) along the edge of the Mongolian plateau from Gansu Province in the west to the Yellow Sea in the east. Its width ranges from 4 to 12 m (12 to 40 ft) and its height from 6 to 15 m (20 to 50 ft). It makes possible much more effective military defense of China from invaders.

It was perhaps the greatest and largest thing ever created by man by that point. Unlike the wall we see today, it was originally an earthen and wooden rampart structure, and had earlier precedents, walls built by the various states of the Warring States period to keep out nomads in the north. There was a huge human cost involved; it is believed over a million people died in the construction. The wall that is visible today dates from the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644), begun after the expulsion of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1276 - 1368) and nearly a thousand years of nomad rule in China under various dynastic titles.  It did not, however, prevent a final nomadic group from conquering China at the end of the Ming dynasty in 1368 - the Manchus.  The Shanhaiguan pass, the main route into and out of Manchuria, was not protected by the wall, and in 1644, Manchus, Buddhist descendants of the Jurchen tribes who had fought the Han Chinese for centuries, invaded the north of China, exploiting the weak late-Ming government and infrastructure. This resulted in the formation of the Qing dynasty, which lasted until the revolution of 1911.

It was perhaps the greatest and largest thing ever created by man by that point. Unlike the wall we see today, it was originally an earthen and wooden rampart structure, and had earlier precedents, walls built by the various states of the Warring States period to keep out nomads in the north. There was a huge human cost involved; it is believed over a million people died in the construction. The wall that is visible today dates from the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644), begun after the expulsion of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1276 - 1368) and nearly a thousand years of nomad rule in China under various dynastic titles.  It did not, however, prevent a final nomadic group from conquering China at the end of the Ming dynasty in 1368 - the Manchus.  The Shanhaiguan pass, the main route into and out of Manchuria, was not protected by the wall, and in 1644, Manchus, Buddhist descendants of the Jurchen tribes who had fought the Han Chinese for centuries, invaded the north of China, exploiting the weak late-Ming government and infrastructure. This resulted in the formation of the Qing dynasty, which lasted until the revolution of 1911.

===Reforms: 1901-1908===

===Reforms: 1901-1908===

The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement--this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.

The humiliation of the Boxer Rebellion stimulated a second reform movement—this time sanctioned by Empress Dowager [[Cixi]]. From 1901 to 1908, the dynasty announced a series of educational, military, and administrative reforms, many reminiscent of the "one hundreds days" of 1898. The imperial examinations of 1902 and 1904 included questions on the politics, science and technology of all countries, requiring some 50,000 students to study such subjects, most of whom would not otherwise be interested.<ref>Iwo Amelung, "[http://proj3.sinica.edu.tw/~icosas/download/ScholarSummary/278.pdf The Examination System and the Dissemination of Western Knowledge during the Late Qing]"</ref> Unfortunately, the examination system was abolished in 1905.

Armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.  

Armies were raised and trained in European (and Japanese) fashion and plans for a national army were laid. The creation of the "new army" reflected rising esteem for the military profession and the emergence of a new national elite that dominated China for much of the 20th century. More officers and men were now literate, while patriotism and better pay served as an inducement for service.  

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

[[Chiang Kai-shek]], who become Nationalist leader following Sun's death, defeated the Beiyang warlords and moved to central government to Nanjing in 1927. A warlord revolt was defeated in a brief but bloody war in 1930. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

[[Chiang Kai-shek]], who become Nationalist leader following Sun's death, defeated the Beiyang warlords and moved to central government to Nanjing in 1927. A warlord revolt was defeated in a brief but bloody war in 1930. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, defeating the government armies, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China's resistance was ineffective.<ref>Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14-16</ref>  

===Communist Party===

===Communist Party===

The Chinese Communist Party was founded in Shanghai, China's largest city, in 1921. It was allied with the KMT but in classical Marxist style its goal was initially to foment revolution among urban workers. It was controlled by [[Stalin]] in Moscow through the Comintern. In 1927, however, a bloody anti-communist coup by the Nationalist, destroyed the CCP in the cities. Forced into the countryside, the CCP broke with Russian guidance and developed a new strategy based on agrarian revolution, mobilizing poor peasants by promising to confiscate and redistribute the lands held by landlords. [[Mao Zedong]] took the lead.<ref> Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14</ref>  

The Chinese Communist Party was founded in Shanghai, China's largest city, in 1921. It was allied with the KMT but in classical Marxist style its goal was initially to foment revolution among urban workers. It was controlled by [[Stalin]] in Moscow through the Comintern. In 1927, however, a bloody anti-communist coup by the Nationalist, destroyed the CCP in the cities. Forced into the countryside, the CCP broke with Russian guidance and developed a new strategy based on agrarian revolution, mobilizing poor peasants by promising to confiscate and redistribute the lands held by landlords. [[Mao Zedong]] took the lead.<ref>Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14</ref>  

====The Long March: 1934-36 ====

====The Long March: 1934-36 ====

In 1934-35, the CCP fled the KMT with over 100,000 men and women.They divided into several armies, marched 6,000 miles inland through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers and marshes in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution. Only 7000 survived the march.<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008] </ref>

In 1934-35, the CCP fled the KMT with over 100,000 men and women.They divided into several armies, marched 6,000 miles inland through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers and marshes in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution. Only 7000 survived the march.<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008]</ref>

The Long March became the heroic memory of the CCP, and virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>

The Long March became the heroic memory of the CCP, and virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>

[[Image:PRCFounding.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mao Zedong]] proclaims the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949.]]

[[Image:PRCFounding.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mao Zedong]] proclaims the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949.]]

In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under Mao Zedong (1893-1976). Mao established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to [[Taiwan]]. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949. Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950-53), and broke with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy.   

In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under Mao Zedong (1893-1976). Mao established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to [[Taiwan]]. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949. Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950–53), and broke with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy.   

===Great Leap Forward===

===Great Leap Forward===

The Great Leap Forward (1958-60) and the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) were the two worst periods of leftist domination in the history of China. Beginning in 1958, Mao imposed unrealistic targets on Chinese grain production to extract funds from agriculture for rapid industrial growth. Maoists placed relentless pressure on Communist cadres for ruthless implementation of the Great Leap Forward. Contrary to Maoist plans, China's grain output in 1959-60 declined sharply from 1957 levels and rural per capita grain retention decreased dramatically. Throughout China, party cadres' mismanagement of agricultural production was responsible for the decline in grain output, and the Communist state's excessive requisition of grain caused food shortages for the peasants.<ref>Yixin Chen, "Cold War Competition and Food Production in China, 1957-1962," ''Agricultural History'' 2009 83(1): 51-78, </ref>

The Great Leap Forward (1958–60) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) were the two worst periods of leftist domination in the history of China. Beginning in 1958, Mao imposed unrealistic targets on Chinese grain production to extract funds from agriculture for rapid industrial growth. Maoists placed relentless pressure on Communist cadres for ruthless implementation of the Great Leap Forward. Contrary to Maoist plans, China's grain output in 1959-60 declined sharply from 1957 levels and rural per capita grain retention decreased dramatically. Throughout China, party cadres' mismanagement of agricultural production was responsible for the decline in grain output, and the Communist state's excessive requisition of grain caused food shortages for the peasants.<ref>Yixin Chen, "Cold War Competition and Food Production in China, 1957-1962," ''Agricultural History'' 2009 83(1): 51-78,</ref>

===The Cultural Revolution===

===The Cultural Revolution===

===Nixon===

===Nixon===

In 1972 the world was stunned when American President [[Richard Nixon]] visited Beijing, ending the cold war between the two countries and opening an era of détente and friendship that continues into the 21st century.<ref> For primary sources and details see [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/publications/DOC_readers/kissinger/nixzhou/ "Record of Historic Richard Nixon-Zhou Enlai Talks in February 1972 Now Declassified"] </ref>  

In 1972 the world was stunned when American President [[Richard Nixon]] visited Beijing, ending the cold war between the two countries and opening an era of détente and friendship that continues into the 21st century.<ref>For primary sources and details see [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/publications/DOC_readers/kissinger/nixzhou/ "Record of Historic Richard Nixon-Zhou Enlai Talks in February 1972 Now Declassified"]</ref>  

===The post-Mao era===

===The post-Mao era===

* Wang, Q. Edward. ''Inventing China Through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography.'' State U. of New York Press, 2001. 304 pp.

* Wang, Q. Edward. ''Inventing China Through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography.'' State U. of New York Press, 2001. 304 pp.

* Wilkinson, Endymion.  ''Chinese History, A Manual, Revised and Enlarged.'' Harvard U. Asia Center, 2000. 1181 pp. Standard research guide to 4300 books and sources (most in Chinese) covering all major topics; for advanced users only

* Wilkinson, Endymion.  ''Chinese History, A Manual, Revised and Enlarged.'' Harvard U. Asia Center, 2000. 1181 pp. Standard research guide to 4300 books and sources (most in Chinese) covering all major topics; for advanced users only

* Xia, Yafeng. "The Study of Cold War International History in China: A Review of the Last Twenty Years," ''Journal of Cold War Studies''10#1 Winter 2008, pp. 81-115 in [[Project Muse]]

* Xia, Yafeng. "The Study of Cold War International History in China: A Review of the Last Twenty Years," ''Journal of Cold War Studies''10#1 Winter 2008, pp.&nbsp;81–115 in [[Project Muse]]

* [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/index.html Studies of Modern Chinese History: Reviews and Historiographical Essays]

* [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/index.html Studies of Modern Chinese History: Reviews and Historiographical Essays]