Changes

In 1608, a ship owned by the British East India Company dropped anchor off Surat, marking the start of British colonization. The British presence would remain discreet for 150 years. India offered a sphere of trade activity for merchants and a field for troop maneuvers.  

In 1608, a ship owned by the British East India Company dropped anchor off Surat, marking the start of British colonization. The British presence would remain discreet for 150 years. India offered a sphere of trade activity for merchants and a field for troop maneuvers.  

The first British outpost in South Asia was established by the [[East India Company]]--informally called the "John Company"--in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras (now [[Chennai]]), Bombay (now [[Mumbai]]), and Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]), each under the protection of native rulers.  

The first British outpost in South Asia was established by the [[East India Company]]—informally called the "John Company"—in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras (now [[Chennai]]), Bombay (now [[Mumbai]]), and Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]), each under the protection of native rulers.  

===French failure===

===French failure===

Using the port of Lorient in France, the French East India Company shipped wood, coal, hemp, textiles, foodstuffs, wine, and assorted raw materials and other products to India.  

Using the port of Lorient in France, the French East India Company shipped wood, coal, hemp, textiles, foodstuffs, wine, and assorted raw materials and other products to India.  

In 1757, the battle of Plassey confirmed British supremacy, although the British avoided exercising direct political power in India even as senior civil servants began to play an ever-increasing role.

In 1757, the battle of Plassey confirmed British supremacy, although the British avoided exercising direct political power in India even as senior civil servants began to play an ever-increasing role.

The disastrous defeat of France in the Seven Years' War (1758-63), the decline of French influence in India, and the growing British predominance there led France in 1778 to plan a new war against Britain in coordination with the [[American Revolution]].  The strategy included an expedition against British spheres of influence in India, which was intended to draw a large part of the British navy into the Indian Ocean. France found an ally in Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore and a leader of the princes opposed to the growing domination of the British. France sent a military assistance group to Hyder Ali to reinforce his artillery and his cavalry, but in a series of campaigns he failed to inflict a decisive defeat upon the British. Although the war between Britain and France ended in 1783, the French continued to assist Tipu Sultan, the son and successor of Hyder Ali, until he was defeated by the British and died in 1799.  

The disastrous defeat of France in the Seven Years' War (1758–63), the decline of French influence in India, and the growing British predominance there led France in 1778 to plan a new war against Britain in coordination with the [[American Revolution]].  The strategy included an expedition against British spheres of influence in India, which was intended to draw a large part of the British navy into the Indian Ocean. France found an ally in Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore and a leader of the princes opposed to the growing domination of the British. France sent a military assistance group to Hyder Ali to reinforce his artillery and his cavalry, but in a series of campaigns he failed to inflict a decisive defeat upon the British. Although the war between Britain and France ended in 1783, the French continued to assist Tipu Sultan, the son and successor of Hyder Ali, until he was defeated by the British and died in 1799.  

[[File:India1795.jpg|thumb|280px|India in 1795]]

[[File:India1795.jpg|thumb|280px|India in 1795]]

[[File:India-1850.jpg|thumb|350px|India in 1850]]

[[File:India-1850.jpg|thumb|350px|India in 1850]]

The Sepoy rebellion (1857-58) meant the end of Mughal power and reduced India to a complete British colony - the jewel of the empire. The British Raj reached its apogee between 1885 and 1918.  

The Sepoy rebellion (1857–58) meant the end of Mughal power and reduced India to a complete British colony - the jewel of the empire. The British Raj reached its apogee between 1885 and 1918.  

In 1857, an unsuccessful rebellion in north India led by Indian soldiers seeking the restoration of the Mughal Emperor caused the British Parliament to transfer political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Britain began administering most of India directly, while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.  

In 1857, an unsuccessful rebellion in north India led by Indian soldiers seeking the restoration of the Mughal Emperor caused the British Parliament to transfer political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Britain began administering most of India directly, while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.  

India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realized until a century or so later.  

India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realized until a century or so later.  

The British built a superb system in India. However, Christensen (1996) looks at of colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers.<ref> * R. O. Christensen, "The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870-1920" in Terri Gourvish, ed. ''Railways'' vol 1 (1996); George ston, ''History of the East Indian Railway'' (1906) 281 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=-5MEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:railway+intitle:history&num=30&as_brr=1 online at Google]</ref>

The British built a superb system in India. However, Christensen (1996) looks at of colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers.<ref>* R. O. Christensen, "The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870-1920" in Terri Gourvish, ed. ''Railways'' vol 1 (1996); George ston, ''History of the East Indian Railway'' (1906) 281 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=-5MEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:railway+intitle:history&num=30&as_brr=1 online at Google]</ref>

By the 1940s, India had the fourth longest railway network in the world. Yet the country's industrialization was delayed until after independence in 1947 by British colonial policy. Until the 1930s, both the Indian government and the private railway companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive drivers (engineers). The government's "Stores Policy" required that bids on railway matériel be presented to the India Office in London, making it almost impossible for enterprises based in India to compete for orders. Likewise, the railway companies purchased most of their matériel in Britain, rather than in India. Although the railway maintenance workshops in India could have manufactured and repaired locomotives, the railways imported a majority of them from Britain, and the others from Germany, Belgium, and the United States. The Tata company built a steel mill in India before World War I but could not obtain orders for rails until the 1920s and 1930s.

By the 1940s, India had the fourth longest railway network in the world. Yet the country's industrialization was delayed until after independence in 1947 by British colonial policy. Until the 1930s, both the Indian government and the private railway companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive drivers (engineers). The government's "Stores Policy" required that bids on railway matériel be presented to the India Office in London, making it almost impossible for enterprises based in India to compete for orders. Likewise, the railway companies purchased most of their matériel in Britain, rather than in India. Although the railway maintenance workshops in India could have manufactured and repaired locomotives, the railways imported a majority of them from Britain, and the others from Germany, Belgium, and the United States. The Tata company built a steel mill in India before World War I but could not obtain orders for rails until the 1920s and 1930s.

The roots of the Indian nationalist movement date back to the 1870s, leading to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. The decolonization movement began in 1919. The year 1919 was one of serious incidents, notably the Amritsar massacre, which marked a point of no return in the history of British India. From that moment onward, the colonial government had to face a nationalist opposition capable of coordinating mass agitation. The noncooperation movement of 1920-22 and the civil disobedience of 1930-34 demonstrated the growing scope of anti-British mobilization in India. In an attempt to stabilize the situation, London granted a more liberal constitution in 1935, which notably reinforced provincial autonomy. But the Congress Party took advantage of this move to form governments in eight provinces, thereby consolidating its political foothold.  

The roots of the Indian nationalist movement date back to the 1870s, leading to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. The decolonization movement began in 1919. The year 1919 was one of serious incidents, notably the Amritsar massacre, which marked a point of no return in the history of British India. From that moment onward, the colonial government had to face a nationalist opposition capable of coordinating mass agitation. The noncooperation movement of 1920-22 and the civil disobedience of 1930-34 demonstrated the growing scope of anti-British mobilization in India. In an attempt to stabilize the situation, London granted a more liberal constitution in 1935, which notably reinforced provincial autonomy. But the Congress Party took advantage of this move to form governments in eight provinces, thereby consolidating its political foothold.  

The Amritsar massacre of 1919 sounded the death knell of the British colonial adventure. Agrarian resistance and revolt were chronic during the colonial period, and began taking a modern turn in the 1920s when peasants, led by [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]], began manifesting their discontent in the context of political demands made by the nationalist intelligentsia, progressively transforming the emancipation movement into an unstoppable mass movement. At the same time the British lost interest in India, seeing it more as a burden than a glory.<Ref> [[Winston Churchill]] in the 1930s argued that the Empire should tighten its hold on India, but found little support..</ref>

The Amritsar massacre of 1919 sounded the death knell of the British colonial adventure. Agrarian resistance and revolt were chronic during the colonial period, and began taking a modern turn in the 1920s when peasants, led by [[Mohandas K. Gandhi]], began manifesting their discontent in the context of political demands made by the nationalist intelligentsia, progressively transforming the emancipation movement into an unstoppable mass movement. At the same time the British lost interest in India, seeing it more as a burden than a glory.<ref>[[Winston Churchill]] in the 1930s argued that the Empire should tighten its hold on India, but found little support..</ref>

Beginning in 1920, Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and non-cooperation to agitate for independence.  

Beginning in 1920, Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and non-cooperation to agitate for independence.  

==War and Independence==

==War and Independence==

During the First World War (1914-18) millions of Indians had served with honor and distinction in the British armed forces. During the Second World War (1939-45)  there was far less volunteering. Although Britain used India as a base for its war in Burma, it was a minor front. Gandhi and Nehru led a programme of passive resistance, meaning refusal to help the British war effort. In response the British withdrew commercial shipping, diverting it to the war effort.  Major famines swept India during the war, killing millions. Neither the British government nor the Congress shadow government moved to alleviate the famine.  

During the First World War (1914–18) millions of Indians had served with honor and distinction in the British armed forces. During the Second World War (1939–45)  there was far less volunteering. Although Britain used India as a base for its war in Burma, it was a minor front. Gandhi and Nehru led a programme of passive resistance, meaning refusal to help the British war effort. In response the British withdrew commercial shipping, diverting it to the war effort.  Major famines swept India during the war, killing millions. Neither the British government nor the Congress shadow government moved to alleviate the famine.  

With Indians increasingly united in their quest for independence, a war-weary Britain led by Labour Prime Minister [[Clement Attlee]] began in earnest to plan for the end of its [[suzerain]]ty in India. Nehru's believed India's communal problems were the artificial result result of the British policy of divide and rule. Nehru's condescension toward Mohammed Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, and belief that the Congress Party represented Muslim as well as Hindu nationalist interests in India resulted in his doing everything possible to avoid partition.  

With Indians increasingly united in their quest for independence, a war-weary Britain led by Labour Prime Minister [[Clement Attlee]] began in earnest to plan for the end of its [[suzerain]]ty in India. Nehru's believed India's communal problems were the artificial result result of the British policy of divide and rule. Nehru's condescension toward Mohammed Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, and belief that the Congress Party represented Muslim as well as Hindu nationalist interests in India resulted in his doing everything possible to avoid partition.  

Strategic colonial considerations, as well as political tensions between Hindus and Muslims, led the British to partition British India into two separate states: India, with a Hindu majority; and [[Pakistan]], which consisted of two "wings," East and West Pakistan--currently Bangladesh and Pakistan--with Muslim majorities.  

Strategic colonial considerations, as well as political tensions between Hindus and Muslims, led the British to partition British India into two separate states: India, with a Hindu majority; and [[Pakistan]], which consisted of two "wings," East and West Pakistan—currently Bangladesh and Pakistan—with Muslim majorities.  

On August 15, 1947, India became independnet, with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] as Prime Minister.  Even before the British army left, there were major violent confrontations between Moslems and Hindus; in 1946-47 massive communal violence erupted that killed millions of people, created tens of millions of refugees and left permanent hatreds and fears.

On August 15, 1947, India became independnet, with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] as Prime Minister.  Even before the British army left, there were major violent confrontations between Moslems and Hindus; in 1946-47 massive communal violence erupted that killed millions of people, created tens of millions of refugees and left permanent hatreds and fears.

After independence, the Indian National Congress, the party of Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the leadership first of Nehru and then his daughter ([[Indira Gandhi]]) and grandson ([[Rajiv Gandhi]]), with the exception of brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s, during a short period in 1996, and the period from 1998-2004, when a coalition led by the Bharatiya Janata Party governed.  

After independence, the Indian National Congress, the party of Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the leadership first of Nehru and then his daughter ([[Indira Gandhi]]) and grandson ([[Rajiv Gandhi]]), with the exception of brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s, during a short period in 1996, and the period from 1998-2004, when a coalition led by the Bharatiya Janata Party governed.  

===Indira Gandhi===

===Indira Gandhi===

Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. Nehru was succeeded by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]  (1917-84), Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977, and again 1980-84.<ref> see Pranay Gupte, ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.; Pupul Jayakar, ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.; Inder Malhotra, ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.</ref>

Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. Nehru was succeeded by [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]]  (1917–84), Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977, and again 1980-84.<ref>see Pranay Gupte, ''Mother India: A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi'' (1992). 320 pp.; Pupul Jayakar, ''Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1993). 448 pp.; Inder Malhotra, ''Indira Gandhi: A Personal and Political Biography.'' (1991). 363 pp.</ref>

Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation’s massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.

Intense political factionalism prevailed her first term as prime minister, 1966-71. Conservative elements who had supported her election - thinking she could be "molded" to their will - fought back bitterly (but unsuccessfully) when she proved to be an ardent defender of Nehru's liberal political philosophy.  In 1969 the Indian National Congress split into two factions. The majority, led by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, promoted socialist economic and social reforms. The conservative minority, called the Syndicate, advocated more capitalism as the solution to the nation’s massive poverty. Cooperating with other conservative parties, the Syndicate weakened Gandhi's popular programs by threatening the parliamentary majority of the Congress party. Mrs Gandhi responded by closer links with leftist parties.

On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by Sikh bodyguards, followed by a nationwide outburst of violent attacks on Sihks. Her son Rajiv Gandhi, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His Congress government was plagued with allegations of corruption resulting in an early call for national elections in 1989.  

On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated by Sikh bodyguards, followed by a nationwide outburst of violent attacks on Sihks. Her son Rajiv Gandhi, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"—Party to take her place. His Congress government was plagued with allegations of corruption resulting in an early call for national elections in 1989.  

Although Rajiv Gandhi's Congress Party won more seats than any other single party in the 1989 elections, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, then joined with the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the Communists on the left to form the government. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the Janata Dal, supported by the Congress (I), came to power for a short period, with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.  

Although Rajiv Gandhi's Congress Party won more seats than any other single party in the 1989 elections, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, then joined with the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the Communists on the left to form the government. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the Janata Dal, supported by the Congress (I), came to power for a short period, with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.  

The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist BJP emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without a parliamentary majority. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the subsequent BJP coalition lasted only 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal formed a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government collapsed after less than a year, when the Congress Party withdrew its support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister at the head of a 16-party United Front coalition.  

The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist BJP emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without a parliamentary majority. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the subsequent BJP coalition lasted only 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal formed a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government collapsed after less than a year, when the Congress Party withdrew its support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister at the head of a 16-party United Front coalition.  

In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support from the United Front. In new elections in February 1998, the BJP won the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President approved a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests, spurring U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.  

In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support from the United Front. In new elections in February 1998, the BJP won the largest number of seats in Parliament—182—but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President approved a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests, spurring U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.  

In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance--a new coalition led by the BJP--won a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999. The NDA government was the first in many years to serve a full five-year term, providing much-needed political stability.  

In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance—a new coalition led by the BJP—won a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999. The NDA government was the first in many years to serve a full five-year term, providing much-needed political stability.  

The Kargil conflict in 1999 and an attack by terrorists on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 led to increased tensions with Pakistan.  

The Kargil conflict in 1999 and an attack by terrorists on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 led to increased tensions with Pakistan.  

Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th-century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.  

Hindu nationalists supportive of the BJP agitated to build a temple on a disputed site in Ayodhya, destroying a 17th-century mosque there in December 1992, and sparking widespread religious riots in which thousands, mostly Muslims, were killed. In February 2002, 57 Hindu volunteers returning from Ayodhya were burnt alive when their train caught fire. Alleging that the fire was caused by Muslim attackers, anti-Muslim rioters throughout the state of Gujarat killed over 900 people and left 100,000 homeless. This led to accusations that the BJP-led Gujarat state government had not done enough to contain the riots, or arrest and prosecute the rioters.  

The ruling BJP-led coalition was defeated in a five-stage election held in April and May of 2004, and a Congress-led coalition, known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), took power on May 22 with [[Manmohan Singh]] as Prime Minister. The UPA's victory was attributed to dissatisfaction among poorer rural voters that the prosperity of the cities had not filtered down to them, and rejection of the BJP's Hindu nationalist agenda.  

The ruling BJP-led coalition was defeated in a five-stage election held in April and May 2004, and a Congress-led coalition, known as the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), took power on May 22 with [[Manmohan Singh]] as Prime Minister. The UPA's victory was attributed to dissatisfaction among poorer rural voters that the prosperity of the cities had not filtered down to them, and rejection of the BJP's Hindu nationalist agenda.  

===Friendly relations with U.S.===

===Friendly relations with U.S.===

The Congress-led UPA government has continued many of the BJP's foreign policies, particularly improving relations with the U.S. Prime Minister Singh and President [[George W. Bush]] concluded a landmark U.S.-India strategic partnership framework agreement on July 18, 2005. In March 2006, President Bush visited India to further the many initiatives that underlie the new agreement. The strategic partnership is anchored by a historic civil nuclear cooperation initiative and includes cooperation in the fields of space, high-technology commerce, health issues, democracy promotion, agriculture, and trade and investment.

The Congress-led UPA government has continued many of the BJP's foreign policies, particularly improving relations with the U.S. Prime Minister Singh and President [[George W. Bush]] concluded a landmark U.S.-India strategic partnership framework agreement on July 18, 2005. In March 2006, President Bush visited India to further the many initiatives that underlie the new agreement. The strategic partnership is anchored by a historic civil nuclear cooperation initiative and includes cooperation in the fields of space, high-technology commerce, health issues, democracy promotion, agriculture, and trade and investment.

==Historiography==

==Historiography==

The discovery and elucidation of India's past owes much to European scholars. William Jones's (1746-94) identification of "Sandrocottus" of Greek history with Chandragupta Mauriya (ruled 321-297 B.C.) established a fixed point in ancient Indian chronology. James Prinsep's (1793-1878) deciphering of Asoka's (ruled 268-231 B.C.) inscriptions and the identification of the "Piyyadasi" mentioned in Asoka's edicts as Asoka himself was another major contribution.  

The discovery and elucidation of India's past owes much to European scholars. William Jones's (1746–94) identification of "Sandrocottus" of Greek history with Chandragupta Mauriya (ruled 321-297 B.C.) established a fixed point in ancient Indian chronology. James Prinsep's (1793-1878) deciphering of Asoka's (ruled 268-231 B.C.) inscriptions and the identification of the "Piyyadasi" mentioned in Asoka's edicts as Asoka himself was another major contribution.  

===Judgment on colonial rule===

===Judgment on colonial rule===

**''v.3. Mediaeval India from the Mohammedan conquest to the reign of Akbar the Great,'' by S. Lane-Poole.  [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia03jackiala online edition]

**''v.3. Mediaeval India from the Mohammedan conquest to the reign of Akbar the Great,'' by S. Lane-Poole.  [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia03jackiala online edition]

**''v.4. From the reign of Akbar the Great to the fall of the Moghul empire,'' by S. Lane-Poole.  [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia04jackiala online edition]

**''v.4. From the reign of Akbar the Great to the fall of the Moghul empire,'' by S. Lane-Poole.  [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia04jackiala online edition]

**''v.5. The Mohammedan period as described by its own historians,'' by Sir H.M. Elliot[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia05jackiala online edition]

**''v.5. The Mohammedan period as described by its own historians,'' by Sir H.M. Elliot [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia05jackiala online edition]

** ''v.6. From the first European settlements to the founding of the English East India Company,'' by Sir W.W. Hunter. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia06jackiala online edition]

** ''v.6. From the first European settlements to the founding of the English East India Company,'' by Sir W.W. Hunter. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia06jackiala online edition]

** ''v.7. The European struggle for Indian supremacy in the seventeenth century,'' by Sir W.W. Hunter. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia07jackiala online edition]

** ''v.7. The European struggle for Indian supremacy in the seventeenth century,'' by Sir W.W. Hunter. [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia07jackiala online edition]

* Tomlinson, B. R. et al.''The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970'' (1996) (The New Cambridge History of India)

* Tomlinson, B. R. et al.''The Economy of Modern India, 1860-1970'' (1996) (The New Cambridge History of India)

* Larue, C. Steven. ''The India Handbook'' (1997) (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development).

* Larue, C. Steven. ''The India Handbook'' (1997) (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development).

* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., ISBN: 978-0-19-531503-5  The major recent history; for advanced readers. [http://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1  excerpt and text search]

* Panagariya, Arvind. ''India: The Emerging Giant'' (2008) 544 pp., ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5  The major recent history; for advanced readers. [http://www.amazon.com/India-Emerging-Giant-Arvind/dp/0195315030/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1222697254&sr=8-1  excerpt and text search]

* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)

* Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)

* Rudolph, Lloyd I. ''In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State'' (1987).

* Rudolph, Lloyd I. ''In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State'' (1987).

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===

*Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1907) ''v.9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental,'' by A.V.W. Jackson [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]

*Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. ''History of India'' (1907) ''v.9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental,'' by A.V.W. Jackson [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofindia09jackiala online edition]

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