Changes

After 1940, prosperity returned. [[World War II]] gave the state a major naval and industrial economic base. Desegregation of schools and the integration of African Americans in many other aspects of the society were major issues from the 1950s to the 1970s and the changes did not come without considerable efforts. However, in 1989 [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first elected black governor anywhere in the country. By the 1980s the suburban fringes of Washington known as "Northern Virginia" saw the greatest growth and prosperity, a trend which was also seen in the [[Hampton Roads]] region. The rest of the state was relatively poor, with little growth.

After 1940, prosperity returned. [[World War II]] gave the state a major naval and industrial economic base. Desegregation of schools and the integration of African Americans in many other aspects of the society were major issues from the 1950s to the 1970s and the changes did not come without considerable efforts. However, in 1989 [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first elected black governor anywhere in the country. By the 1980s the suburban fringes of Washington known as "Northern Virginia" saw the greatest growth and prosperity, a trend which was also seen in the [[Hampton Roads]] region. The rest of the state was relatively poor, with little growth.

Politically, the state was a stronghold of conservative Democrats--led by [[Harry Byrd]]-- for most of the 20th century, with a new strength shown by conservative Republicans in the final decade. In the early 21st century, funding for transportation needs  emerged as the most controversial single issue.  

Politically, the state was a stronghold of conservative Democrats—led by [[Harry Byrd]]—for most of the 20th century, with a new strength shown by conservative Republicans in the final decade. In the early 21st century, funding for transportation needs  emerged as the most controversial single issue.  

In partisan terms, the two parties compete furiously for the legislature and the governorship.  In presidential elections Virginia was reliably Republican from 1968 until 2004, but in 2008 Obama won, thanks to the growing liberal strength in the Washington suburbs.

In partisan terms, the two parties compete furiously for the legislature and the governorship.  In presidential elections Virginia was reliably Republican from 1968 until 2004, but in 2008 Obama won, thanks to the growing liberal strength in the Washington suburbs.

The Powhatan were the most powerful and numerous tribe; they lived in settled villages in the eastern shore and tidewater regions. Their food came from hunting, fishing, and garden crops, such as corn, squash, and pumpkins. The Indian population of Virginia was never great, numbering perhaps 17,000 in 1607.  The numbers declined sharply because of new diseases especially smallpox. The English adopted many Indian place names, including Appomattox, Nansemond, Rappahannock, and Shenandoah.

The Powhatan were the most powerful and numerous tribe; they lived in settled villages in the eastern shore and tidewater regions. Their food came from hunting, fishing, and garden crops, such as corn, squash, and pumpkins. The Indian population of Virginia was never great, numbering perhaps 17,000 in 1607.  The numbers declined sharply because of new diseases especially smallpox. The English adopted many Indian place names, including Appomattox, Nansemond, Rappahannock, and Shenandoah.

Spanish explorers visited parts of what is now Virginia in 1560 and again in 1570 when [[Jesuit]] missionaries attempted to set up a mission, but were all killed by Indians. <ref>''[http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20030830.html Spanish Martyrs for Virginia]'' by Matthew M. Anger (30 August 2003)</ref>

Spanish explorers visited parts of what is now Virginia in 1560 and again in 1570 when [[Jesuit]] missionaries attempted to set up a mission, but were all killed by Indians.<ref>''[http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20030830.html Spanish Martyrs for Virginia]'' by Matthew M. Anger (30 August 2003)</ref>

English adventurer Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] led an exploration party in 1584. A group of men from England invested in a Joint Stock Company called "The Virginia Company" to find gold and other treasures. King [[James I]]  granted lands to company in 1606 stretching from North Carolina to New York. The name "Virginia" honors [[Queen Elizabeth I]] (known as the "Virgin Queen" as she never married). The company in 1607 sent 105 settlers who established the first permanent settlement.<ref>[http://www.historyisfun.org/jamestown/jamestown.cfm Jamestown Settlement], accessed 10 March 2007</ref>

English adventurer Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] led an exploration party in 1584. A group of men from England invested in a Joint Stock Company called "The Virginia Company" to find gold and other treasures. King [[James I]]  granted lands to company in 1606 stretching from North Carolina to New York. The name "Virginia" honors [[Queen Elizabeth I]] (known as the "Virgin Queen" as she never married). The company in 1607 sent 105 settlers who established the first permanent settlement.<ref>[http://www.historyisfun.org/jamestown/jamestown.cfm Jamestown Settlement], accessed 10 March 2007</ref>

In 1675 the people were ripe for a rebellion. The spark came from fear of Indian attacks and the feeling that the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley (1606-1677), was not doing his job to protect the colonists. In 1676, they rallied around Nathaniel Bacon, a recent arrival from England, as their leader against the Indians who had launched bloody raids against settlements on the northern and western frontiers.  Bacon demanded the right to lead volunteers against all Indians, even those living peacefully within the colony, in retaliation. Berkeley, fearing unjust dispossession and slaughter of the friendly Indians, refused. Bacon ignored the governor's restriction and led volunteers to the southern frontier in May 1676, where he slaughtered and plundered the friendly Occaneechee Indians.  Berkeley was furious but the colonists hailed him a hero.  

In 1675 the people were ripe for a rebellion. The spark came from fear of Indian attacks and the feeling that the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley (1606-1677), was not doing his job to protect the colonists. In 1676, they rallied around Nathaniel Bacon, a recent arrival from England, as their leader against the Indians who had launched bloody raids against settlements on the northern and western frontiers.  Bacon demanded the right to lead volunteers against all Indians, even those living peacefully within the colony, in retaliation. Berkeley, fearing unjust dispossession and slaughter of the friendly Indians, refused. Bacon ignored the governor's restriction and led volunteers to the southern frontier in May 1676, where he slaughtered and plundered the friendly Occaneechee Indians.  Berkeley was furious but the colonists hailed him a hero.  

When the governor attempted to call him to account, Bacon marched to Jamestown and, at gunpoint, forced the assembly to grant him formal authority to fight the Indian war, which he then prosecuted against another friendly tribe, the Pamunkey. Berkeley now attempted to raise forces to reestablish his own authority, and Bacon turned on the governor with his volunteers. Civil war ensued. Berkeley was driven to the eastern shore of Virginia; Bacon burned Jamestown, the capital. For a few months Bacon's word was law on the mainland; he may have been thinking of independence from the Empire. Suddenly, in October 1676, Bacon died of natural causes and his rebellion disintegrated. Berkeley, having recruited volunteers, defeated the remaining rebels, and, by February 1677, reestablished his authority. Soon thereafter 1,000 troops, sent by King [[Charles II]] to suppress the rebellion, arrived, accompanied by commissioners to investigate its causes. Berkeley had revenged himself by executing defeated rebels after quick courts martial, and for that was severely censured by the commissioners. They sent him to England to justify himself but Berkeley died before seeing the king.<ref> See Wilcomb E. Washburn, ''Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia,'' (1957), by a conservative historian. </ref>

When the governor attempted to call him to account, Bacon marched to Jamestown and, at gunpoint, forced the assembly to grant him formal authority to fight the Indian war, which he then prosecuted against another friendly tribe, the Pamunkey. Berkeley now attempted to raise forces to reestablish his own authority, and Bacon turned on the governor with his volunteers. Civil war ensued. Berkeley was driven to the eastern shore of Virginia; Bacon burned Jamestown, the capital. For a few months Bacon's word was law on the mainland; he may have been thinking of independence from the Empire. Suddenly, in October 1676, Bacon died of natural causes and his rebellion disintegrated. Berkeley, having recruited volunteers, defeated the remaining rebels, and, by February 1677, reestablished his authority. Soon thereafter 1,000 troops, sent by King [[Charles II]] to suppress the rebellion, arrived, accompanied by commissioners to investigate its causes. Berkeley had revenged himself by executing defeated rebels after quick courts martial, and for that was severely censured by the commissioners. They sent him to England to justify himself but Berkeley died before seeing the king.<ref>See Wilcomb E. Washburn, ''Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia,'' (1957), by a conservative historian.</ref>

====Slavery and freedom====

====Slavery and freedom====

A central paradox in American history is the simultaneous rise of liberty and equality and the rise of slavery. With particular attention to Virginia, Morgan (1972) has offered a resolution of the paradox. Virginians feared the presence of large numbers of landless and dependent poor people as antithetical to political liberty and social well-being. Yet, this is what was happening in Virginia, leading to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Large numbers of young, armed, single white men had come to Virginia to seek their fortune. They worked on tobacco plantations for wages and few could expect to become planters. They became a source of peril to the established gentry. Governor Berkeley had lamented that "six parts of seven at least are poor, indebted, discontented, and armed." The gentry solved the problem after Bacon's rebellion by replacing the white men with black slaves. This  reduced the need to import white servants, opened opportunities for whites who remained, and enabled Virginia to build its free political institutions upon slavery.<ref> Edmund S. Morgan, "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." ''Journal of American History'' 1972 59(1): 5-29 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1888384 in JSTOR]; Morgan,  ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975) </ref>

A central paradox in American history is the simultaneous rise of liberty and equality and the rise of slavery. With particular attention to Virginia, Morgan (1972) has offered a resolution of the paradox. Virginians feared the presence of large numbers of landless and dependent poor people as antithetical to political liberty and social well-being. Yet, this is what was happening in Virginia, leading to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Large numbers of young, armed, single white men had come to Virginia to seek their fortune. They worked on tobacco plantations for wages and few could expect to become planters. They became a source of peril to the established gentry. Governor Berkeley had lamented that "six parts of seven at least are poor, indebted, discontented, and armed." The gentry solved the problem after Bacon's rebellion by replacing the white men with black slaves. This  reduced the need to import white servants, opened opportunities for whites who remained, and enabled Virginia to build its free political institutions upon slavery.<ref>Edmund S. Morgan, "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." ''Journal of American History'' 1972 59(1): 5-29 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1888384 in JSTOR]; Morgan,  ''American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia'' (1975)</ref>

===Slaves===

===Slaves===

===Gentry rule===

===Gentry rule===

Politically the planters controlled local government through their control of the Anglican parishes and county government; neither was elected. The planters also controlled elections to the the colonial legislature, the House of Burgesses.  English institutions were changed into a system of democracy--most white men owned property so they could and did vote, and usually voted for their "betters". (In England, by contrast, fewer than 10% of the men could vote.)  The gentry tried to emulate the life style of British gentlemen; their favorite pastimes were gambling, billiards, cards, bowling, cockfighting, and especially horse racing.  The increasing social solidarity among the gentry depended horse racing. The rules, the patterns of betting, and the relations of the persons involved reflected gentry values and shows their values regarding acquisitiveness, honor, individualism, materialism, personal relationships, and symbols. Gaming among the gentry strengthened class cohesion and cultural dominance by the gentry.<ref> T. H. Breen, "Horses and Gentlemen: The Cultural Significance of Gambling among the Gentry of Virginia." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 1977 34(2): 239-257. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1925315  in JSTOR]</Ref>  

Politically the planters controlled local government through their control of the Anglican parishes and county government; neither was elected. The planters also controlled elections to the the colonial legislature, the House of Burgesses.  English institutions were changed into a system of democracy—most white men owned property so they could and did vote, and usually voted for their "betters". (In England, by contrast, fewer than 10% of the men could vote.)  The gentry tried to emulate the life style of British gentlemen; their favorite pastimes were gambling, billiards, cards, bowling, cockfighting, and especially horse racing.  The increasing social solidarity among the gentry depended horse racing. The rules, the patterns of betting, and the relations of the persons involved reflected gentry values and shows their values regarding acquisitiveness, honor, individualism, materialism, personal relationships, and symbols. Gaming among the gentry strengthened class cohesion and cultural dominance by the gentry.<ref>T. H. Breen, "Horses and Gentlemen: The Cultural Significance of Gambling among the Gentry of Virginia." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 1977 34(2): 239-257. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1925315  in JSTOR]</ref>  

===Demography===

===Demography===

Demographic conditions after 1660 were increasingly favorable. Malaria was not fatal to people born in Virginia, and the food supply was ample. Both the white and black population grew rapidly.  Wars were uncommon and small-scale.  Immigration comprised mostly middle class families, plus poor teenagers who came as "indentured servants" and became fully independent at age 21. Between 1718 and 1775, Britain dumped about 20,000 convicts in Virginia (after the Revolution it sent them to Australia).

Demographic conditions after 1660 were increasingly favorable. Malaria was not fatal to people born in Virginia, and the food supply was ample. Both the white and black population grew rapidly.  Wars were uncommon and small-scale.  Immigration comprised mostly middle class families, plus poor teenagers who came as "indentured servants" and became fully independent at age 21. Between 1718 and 1775, Britain dumped about 20,000 convicts in Virginia (after the Revolution it sent them to Australia).

===Women===

===Women===

It was a patriarchal society ruled exclusively by men. However, if a man overstepped the boundaries of local norms, the county court could intervene and punish him. Thus in 1668-70 a rich planter named Henry Smith was charged several times in court--he was accused of concubinage, wife beating, adultery, child abuse, fathering bastards, sexual harassment, rape, and brutality toward servants. The court heard damning testimony from his wife and from his mistress and other local women.  Illiterate and isolated but well versed in their legal and customary rights and duties, the women knew how to handle Smith, who was found guilty.<ref> Irmina Wawrzyczek, "The Women of Accomack Versus Henry Smith: Gender, Legal Recourse, and the Social Order in Seventeenth-Century Virginia," ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography,'' 1997 105(1): 5-26; on patriarchy, see  by Kathleen M. Brown, ''Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia'' (1996).   </ref>

It was a patriarchal society ruled exclusively by men. However, if a man overstepped the boundaries of local norms, the county court could intervene and punish him. Thus in 1668-70 a rich planter named Henry Smith was charged several times in court—he was accused of concubinage, wife beating, adultery, child abuse, fathering bastards, sexual harassment, rape, and brutality toward servants. The court heard damning testimony from his wife and from his mistress and other local women.  Illiterate and isolated but well versed in their legal and customary rights and duties, the women knew how to handle Smith, who was found guilty.<ref>Irmina Wawrzyczek, "The Women of Accomack Versus Henry Smith: Gender, Legal Recourse, and the Social Order in Seventeenth-Century Virginia," ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography,'' 1997 105(1): 5-26; on patriarchy, see  by Kathleen M. Brown, ''Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia'' (1996).</ref>

Despite male political control, women had some economic power. Men generally believed their wives were competent to control their estates and to wield economic power, and widows proved self-reliant and able managers of their property and wealth. Running farms without the help of a son, widows often delayed giving children their inheritance, wielding their economic power for personal and familial ends. However, whereas male opportunity for independence and power increased with age, it decreased with age for women. Older men were much less likely than younger men to transfer their economic power to their wives, instead passing it along to adult children.  

Despite male political control, women had some economic power. Men generally believed their wives were competent to control their estates and to wield economic power, and widows proved self-reliant and able managers of their property and wealth. Running farms without the help of a son, widows often delayed giving children their inheritance, wielding their economic power for personal and familial ends. However, whereas male opportunity for independence and power increased with age, it decreased with age for women. Older men were much less likely than younger men to transfer their economic power to their wives, instead passing it along to adult children.  

===Religion===

===Religion===

Most Virginians were not very religious, but most also believed in a spirit world. The supernatural world of the settlers involved belief in benevolent and demonic forces, divine judgment, omens, magic, witchcraft, combat with the devil, and other ideas brought over from England. This complex supernatural world functioned to explain the unknown, sanction colonization, demonize the native population, control the colonists, and provide a defense against internal and external enemies.<ref> Edward L. Bond, "Source of Knowledge, Source of Power: The Supernatural World of English Virginia, 1607-1624." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 105-138. 0042-6636 </ref>

Most Virginians were not very religious, but most also believed in a spirit world. The supernatural world of the settlers involved belief in benevolent and demonic forces, divine judgment, omens, magic, witchcraft, combat with the devil, and other ideas brought over from England. This complex supernatural world functioned to explain the unknown, sanction colonization, demonize the native population, control the colonists, and provide a defense against internal and external enemies.<ref>Edward L. Bond, "Source of Knowledge, Source of Power: The Supernatural World of English Virginia, 1607-1624." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 105-138. 0042-6636</ref>

The Anglican religion was established--meaning that taxes were collected to support the church and the parish handled poor relief.  Scattered settlements and the lack of trained Anglican ministers --there were only 109 Anglican ministers in 1775--meant that piety was practiced mostly at home. Itinerant ministers encouraged parishioners to use the ''Book of Common Prayer'' for private prayer and devotion. This allowed Anglicans to lead an active and sincere religious life apart from formal church services. Private piety, however, weakened the Anglican Church, and what clergy there were were controlled by the laymen in the vestry. The vestrymen filled vacancies in their own ranks, and was thus self-perpetuating and increasingly isolated from the people.  As a result Anglicans were unable to counter the [[First Great Awakening]], which created a large Baptist denomination.

The Anglican religion was established—meaning that taxes were collected to support the church and the parish handled poor relief.  Scattered settlements and the lack of trained Anglican ministers—there were only 109 Anglican ministers in 1775—meant that piety was practiced mostly at home. Itinerant ministers encouraged parishioners to use the ''Book of Common Prayer'' for private prayer and devotion. This allowed Anglicans to lead an active and sincere religious life apart from formal church services. Private piety, however, weakened the Anglican Church, and what clergy there were were controlled by the laymen in the vestry. The vestrymen filled vacancies in their own ranks, and was thus self-perpetuating and increasingly isolated from the people.  As a result Anglicans were unable to counter the [[First Great Awakening]], which created a large Baptist denomination.

James Blair (1655-1743) arrived in 1685 as an Anglican  missionary and representative of the Bishop of London. Blair was a latitudinarian churchman, Whiggish advocate of colonial prerogatives, backstage political operator, and acting governor (1740-41), Most important, he founded and was president of the [[College of William and Mary]], which he designed to spread throughout America some of the Christian humanism that he learned in 17th century Scotland.

James Blair (1655-1743) arrived in 1685 as an Anglican  missionary and representative of the Bishop of London. Blair was a latitudinarian churchman, Whiggish advocate of colonial prerogatives, backstage political operator, and acting governor (1740–41), Most important, he founded and was president of the [[College of William and Mary]], which he designed to spread throughout America some of the Christian humanism that he learned in 17th century Scotland.

===Rise of the Baptists===

===Rise of the Baptists===

Created in 1758, the Sandy Creek Association was the third Baptist association formed in colonial America. It brought together all Separate Baptist churches in Virginia and the Carolinas. Its early meetings were times of singing, preaching, and encouraging and training younger pastors, but it split three ways in 1770 because Shubal Stearns, the legendary Baptist leader, established a strongly centralized organization that many churches felt they had to leave to preserve their autonomy.  

Created in 1758, the Sandy Creek Association was the third Baptist association formed in colonial America. It brought together all Separate Baptist churches in Virginia and the Carolinas. Its early meetings were times of singing, preaching, and encouraging and training younger pastors, but it split three ways in 1770 because Shubal Stearns, the legendary Baptist leader, established a strongly centralized organization that many churches felt they had to leave to preserve their autonomy.  

From 1755 to 1790 Virginia hosted numerous local religious revivals that led to the rapid growth of the Baptist Church among poor white farmers. Converts were particularly drawn to the faith by its promise to provide social order through heightened self-discipline and its ability to elicit interpersonal contact and intense emotional release. Although the congregations have been described as favorably disposed toward slaves, an overwhelming body of evidence suggests the predominance of proslavery tendencies. Friends, relatives and neighbors brought potential converts to revival meetings, and supported them when they converted.  After 1800 black slaves adopted the Baptist religion as well, ignoring the Episcopal and Presbyterian churches of their owners<ref> Jewel L. Spangler, "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia". ''Journal of Southern History'' 2001 67(2): 243-286. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002399579 online edition]</ref>

From 1755 to 1790 Virginia hosted numerous local religious revivals that led to the rapid growth of the Baptist Church among poor white farmers. Converts were particularly drawn to the faith by its promise to provide social order through heightened self-discipline and its ability to elicit interpersonal contact and intense emotional release. Although the congregations have been described as favorably disposed toward slaves, an overwhelming body of evidence suggests the predominance of proslavery tendencies. Friends, relatives and neighbors brought potential converts to revival meetings, and supported them when they converted.  After 1800 black slaves adopted the Baptist religion as well, ignoring the Episcopal and Presbyterian churches of their owners<ref>Jewel L. Spangler, "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia". ''Journal of Southern History'' 2001 67(2): 243-286. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002399579 online edition]</ref>

The Anglican elite depended on automatic deference from ordinary farmers.  Increasingly the Baptists and Presbysterians refused to doff their hats or vote the way they were told, and they managed to stick together thanks to their strong social networks. The colonial government faced the issue by creating a standing "Committee for Religion" in the House of Burgesses in 1769.  It first made sure London did not impose an Anglican bishop for the colony, and thus kept Anglican church affairs in the hands of the gentry. It was forced to concede to dissenter demands for greater toleration and agreed to allow several parishes the right to elect their vestrymen. As the colonial era ended the interlocking crises of religion in Virginia remained unresolved, but the committee had served as a forum within which the ruling elite worked out solutions that were designed to win public support.<ref> Paul K. Longmore, "'All Matters and Things Relating to Religion and Morality': The Virginia Burgesses' Committee for Religion, 1769 To 1775." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1996 38(4): 775-797. </ref>

The Anglican elite depended on automatic deference from ordinary farmers.  Increasingly the Baptists and Presbysterians refused to doff their hats or vote the way they were told, and they managed to stick together thanks to their strong social networks. The colonial government faced the issue by creating a standing "Committee for Religion" in the House of Burgesses in 1769.  It first made sure London did not impose an Anglican bishop for the colony, and thus kept Anglican church affairs in the hands of the gentry. It was forced to concede to dissenter demands for greater toleration and agreed to allow several parishes the right to elect their vestrymen. As the colonial era ended the interlocking crises of religion in Virginia remained unresolved, but the committee had served as a forum within which the ruling elite worked out solutions that were designed to win public support.<ref>Paul K. Longmore, "'All Matters and Things Relating to Religion and Morality': The Virginia Burgesses' Committee for Religion, 1769 To 1775." ''Journal of Church and State'' 1996 38(4): 775-797.</ref>

==American Revolution==

==American Revolution==

Virginia's political culture of latre colonial and Revolutionary Virginia involved widespread suffrage--most white men could and did vote.  This political culture was concerned with maintaining order, ensuring that justice prevailed, preserving the ideal of   

Virginia's political culture of latre colonial and Revolutionary Virginia involved widespread suffrage—most white men could and did vote.  This political culture was concerned with maintaining order, ensuring that justice prevailed, preserving the ideal of   

- government by the virtuous and enlightened, and keeping an open society where a man might rise as high as his ability, resources, and opportunities allowed.  Virginians were increasingly worried that Britain threatened this political utopia.  

- government by the virtuous and enlightened, and keeping an open society where a man might rise as high as his ability, resources, and opportunities allowed.  Virginians were increasingly worried that Britain threatened this political utopia.  

==New Nation==

==New Nation==

===Free blacks===

===Free blacks===

The free black population grew rapidly during 1771-1815. Before the American Revolution the increase in the free black population was due mainly to local emancipations, natural population increase, and migration from rural areas. During and after the Revolution, however, there were additional ways to become free, including petitions and lawsuits, the 1782 manumission act, self-purchase, purchase by already free blacks, and individual emancipation. Fear of free blacks in an age of black revolts, however, prompted whites to impose restrictions on manumission and migration and ultimately to revert to the colonial-era policy of expelling free blacks from Virginia.<ref> Michael L. Nicholls, "Strangers Setting Among Us: The Sources and Challenge of the Urban Free Black Population of Early Virginia". ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 155-179. 0042-6636 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4249829  in JSTOR]</ref>

The free black population grew rapidly during 1771-1815. Before the American Revolution the increase in the free black population was due mainly to local emancipations, natural population increase, and migration from rural areas. During and after the Revolution, however, there were additional ways to become free, including petitions and lawsuits, the 1782 manumission act, self-purchase, purchase by already free blacks, and individual emancipation. Fear of free blacks in an age of black revolts, however, prompted whites to impose restrictions on manumission and migration and ultimately to revert to the colonial-era policy of expelling free blacks from Virginia.<ref>Michael L. Nicholls, "Strangers Setting Among Us: The Sources and Challenge of the Urban Free Black Population of Early Virginia". ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 2000 108(2): 155-179. 0042-6636 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4249829  in JSTOR]</ref>

Formal laws and informal customs created innumerable obstacles to the socioeconomic advance of the free black population. Laws prohibited free blacks from some activities and occupations and restricted their participation in others. Racism and terrorism by whites also made advancement difficult. Despite these disadvantages, Virginia's free black population fared rather well, with much better nutrition than people back in Europe or Africa.  They grew nearly as tall as white Americans and towered over contemporary Europeans.<ref> Howard. Bodenhorn, "A Troublesome Caste: Height and Nutrition of Antebellum Virginia's Rural Free Blacks." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1999 59(4): 972-996. 0022-0507 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2566684  in JSTOR]</ref>

Formal laws and informal customs created innumerable obstacles to the socioeconomic advance of the free black population. Laws prohibited free blacks from some activities and occupations and restricted their participation in others. Racism and terrorism by whites also made advancement difficult. Despite these disadvantages, Virginia's free black population fared rather well, with much better nutrition than people back in Europe or Africa.  They grew nearly as tall as white Americans and towered over contemporary Europeans.<ref>Howard. Bodenhorn, "A Troublesome Caste: Height and Nutrition of Antebellum Virginia's Rural Free Blacks." ''Journal of Economic History'' 1999 59(4): 972-996. 0022-0507 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2566684  in JSTOR]</ref>

==Civil War and Reconstruction==

==Civil War and Reconstruction==

* Gleach; Frederic W. ''Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures'' (1997).  

* Gleach; Frederic W. ''Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures'' (1997).  

*[http://www.shop-vahistorical.org/landoncarter.html Rhys Isaac, ''Landon Carter's Uneasy Kingdom: Revolution and Rebellion on a Virginia Plantation'' (2004)]  

*[http://www.shop-vahistorical.org/landoncarter.html Rhys Isaac, ''Landon Carter's Uneasy Kingdom: Revolution and Rebellion on a Virginia Plantation'' (2004)]  

*Isaac, Rhys. ''The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790'' (1982, 1999)] Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality [[http://jsr.fsu.edu/hall.htm  online review]

*Isaac, Rhys. ''The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790'' (1982, 1999)] Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality [http://jsr.fsu.edu/hall.htm  online review]

*Lebsock, Suzanne D. ''A Share of Honour: Virginia Women, 1600-1945'' (1984)

*Lebsock, Suzanne D. ''A Share of Honour: Virginia Women, 1600-1945'' (1984)

* Menard, Russell R. "The Tobacco Industry in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1617-1730: An Interpretation." ''Research In Economic History'' 1980 5: 109-177. 0363-3268 the standard scholarly study

* Menard, Russell R. "The Tobacco Industry in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1617-1730: An Interpretation." ''Research In Economic History'' 1980 5: 109-177. 0363-3268 the standard scholarly study

* Nelson, John ''A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776'' (2001)

* Nelson, John ''A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776'' (2001)

*Rasmussen, William M.S. and Robert S. Tilton. ''Old Virginia: The Pursuit of a Pastoral Ideal'' (2003)]

*Rasmussen, William M.S. and Robert S. Tilton. ''Old Virginia: The Pursuit of a Pastoral Ideal'' (2003)]

*Risjord, Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781-1800'' (1978). in-depth coverage of Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina[http://www.questia.com/library/book/chesapeake-politics-1781-1800-by-norman-k-risjord.jsp online edition]

*Risjord, Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781-1800'' (1978). in-depth coverage of Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chesapeake-politics-1781-1800-by-norman-k-risjord.jsp online edition]

*Roeber, A. G. ''Faithful Magistrates and Republican Lawyers: Creators of Virginia Legal Culture, 1680-1810'' (1981)

*Roeber, A. G. ''Faithful Magistrates and Republican Lawyers: Creators of Virginia Legal Culture, 1680-1810'' (1981)

*Selby, John E. ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775-1783'' (1988)

*Selby, John E. ''The Revolution in Virginia, 1775-1783'' (1988)

*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/VAGuide/history.html WPA Project: History of Virginia]

*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/VAGuide/history.html WPA Project: History of Virginia]

*[http://www.virginiaplaces.org/military/civwar.html Virginia and the Civil War]

*[http://www.virginiaplaces.org/military/civwar.html Virginia and the Civil War]

====references====

====References====

<references/>

<references/>

[[Category:Virginia]]

[[Category:Virginia]]