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Carnegie remained with the Pennsylvania Railroad for twelve years (1853-1865), but long before this, his interests had expanded far beyond the railway office from which he drew his modest salary. In 1864, Carnegie invested $40,000 in Storey Farm on Oil Creek in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. Carnegie was subsequently associated with others in establishing an iron rolling mill. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war and, after the war, he left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. He formed the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh.  The Keystone Bridge Company made iron train bridges; as company superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures. These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works.  Carnegie bought into the Woodruff Sleeping Car Co. and introduced the first successful sleeping car on American railroads. In 1865 he became a partner in a small iron forging company in Pittsburgh, the Kloman Co., and gave up his job with the Pennsylvania Railroad.   

Carnegie remained with the Pennsylvania Railroad for twelve years (1853-1865), but long before this, his interests had expanded far beyond the railway office from which he drew his modest salary. In 1864, Carnegie invested $40,000 in Storey Farm on Oil Creek in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. Carnegie was subsequently associated with others in establishing an iron rolling mill. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war and, after the war, he left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. He formed the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh.  The Keystone Bridge Company made iron train bridges; as company superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures. These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works.  Carnegie bought into the Woodruff Sleeping Car Co. and introduced the first successful sleeping car on American railroads. In 1865 he became a partner in a small iron forging company in Pittsburgh, the Kloman Co., and gave up his job with the Pennsylvania Railroad.   

As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. However, because of his humble and foreign birth he was never fully accepted by Pittsburgh society.<ref> John N. Ingham, "Robber Barons and the Old Elites: a Case Study in Social Stratification." ''Mid-America'' 1970 52(3): 190-204. Issn: 0026-2927 </ref>  By 1868 when he moved permanently to New York City, his multiple investments were all nearly all profitable; he owned assets of $400,000 and an annual income of over $56,000, at a time when a factory foreman earned $1000. He seriously considered retiring at the age of thirty-five.

As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. However, because of his humble and foreign birth he was never fully accepted by Pittsburgh society.<ref>John N. Ingham, "Robber Barons and the Old Elites: a Case Study in Social Stratification." ''Mid-America'' 1970 52(3): 190-204. Issn: 0026-2927</ref>  By 1868 when he moved permanently to New York City, his multiple investments were all nearly all profitable; he owned assets of $400,000 and an annual income of over $56,000, at a time when a factory foreman earned $1000. He seriously considered retiring at the age of thirty-five.

==Building the steel industry==

==Building the steel industry==

In the 36 years that followed his taking over the Kloman Co., Carnegie's career could serve as a summary of the industrial development of the nation in this period. In 1873, on one of his frequent trips to Great Britain, he met Henry Bessemer, inventor of the "Bessemer process," and became convinced that the industrial future lay in steel. His key decision investing $250,000 in the Edgar Thomson Steel Company, formed in 1874 with a capital of $1 million. The Bessemer plant at the company's site at Braddock's Field, near Pittsburgh was designed to manufacture high quality steel rails. Carnegie's huge success with this venture was due first to his commitment to technological change and second to his previous experience with the railroads. He wanted to have the most modern equipment available and was willing, whenever necessary, to scrap expensive machinery after only a short time if better technology could be had. The administrative structure he put together at the Edgar Thomson works was similar to the one he had worked in at the Pennsylvania Railroad. He appointed the country's most talented steel engineer, Captain William Jones (1839-1889), as general superintendent to oversee the daily work of the managers in charge of the blast furnaces. Jones had invented several basic tools, such as the "Jones Mixer."  Carnegie frequently pressured Jones to decrease employee wages, only to have Jones fearlessly reiterate the efficacy of enlightened labor policy.<ref> Tom Gage, "'Hands-on, All-over': Captain Bill Jones." ''Pittsburgh History'' 1997-1998 80(4): 148-169. Issn: 1069-4706 </ref>   

In the 36 years that followed his taking over the Kloman Co., Carnegie's career could serve as a summary of the industrial development of the nation in this period. In 1873, on one of his frequent trips to Great Britain, he met Henry Bessemer, inventor of the "Bessemer process," and became convinced that the industrial future lay in steel. His key decision investing $250,000 in the Edgar Thomson Steel Company, formed in 1874 with a capital of $1 million. The Bessemer plant at the company's site at Braddock's Field, near Pittsburgh was designed to manufacture high quality steel rails. Carnegie's huge success with this venture was due first to his commitment to technological change and second to his previous experience with the railroads. He wanted to have the most modern equipment available and was willing, whenever necessary, to scrap expensive machinery after only a short time if better technology could be had. The administrative structure he put together at the Edgar Thomson works was similar to the one he had worked in at the Pennsylvania Railroad. He appointed the country's most talented steel engineer, Captain William Jones (1839-1889), as general superintendent to oversee the daily work of the managers in charge of the blast furnaces. Jones had invented several basic tools, such as the "Jones Mixer."  Carnegie frequently pressured Jones to decrease employee wages, only to have Jones fearlessly reiterate the efficacy of enlightened labor policy.<ref>Tom Gage, "'Hands-on, All-over': Captain Bill Jones." ''Pittsburgh History'' 1997-1998 80(4): 148-169. Issn: 1069-4706</ref>   

Carnegie purchased iron ore lands in the Lake Superior region, acquired ships and ore-handling facilities, and joined forces in 1884 with Henry Clay Frick (1849–1919), who controlled the great Connesville coal beds. He formed Carnegie Bros. & Co. in 1881 with a capital of $5 million; its chairman was Tom Carnegie; after 1889 Frick held the post. Andrew Carnegie himself had no title, though he controlled 55% of the capital in the partnership, which made a profit of $2 million in its first year.  

Carnegie purchased iron ore lands in the Lake Superior region, acquired ships and ore-handling facilities, and joined forces in 1884 with Henry Clay Frick (1849–1919), who controlled the great Connesville coal beds. He formed Carnegie Bros. & Co. in 1881 with a capital of $5 million; its chairman was Tom Carnegie; after 1889 Frick held the post. Andrew Carnegie himself had no title, though he controlled 55% of the capital in the partnership, which made a profit of $2 million in its first year.  

The Carnegie Steel Company by 1900 had become an immense organization with a profit of $40 million that year. It included all the processes of steel production--from the great blast furnaces and finishing mills of Pittsburgh to the railroads and lake steamers that move the ores and the finished products.  Carnegie sold out his steel and related interests for $447 million in 1901 (Carnegie himself took $226 million; the rest went to his associates) to a syndicate formed by [[J. P. Morgan]] to create the [[United States Steel Company]], by far the largest industrial corporation of the day.<ref> Some railroads were as large, however.</ref>

The Carnegie Steel Company by 1900 had become an immense organization with a profit of $40 million that year. It included all the processes of steel production—from the great blast furnaces and finishing mills of Pittsburgh to the railroads and lake steamers that move the ores and the finished products.  Carnegie sold out his steel and related interests for $447 million in 1901 (Carnegie himself took $226 million; the rest went to his associates) to a syndicate formed by [[J. P. Morgan]] to create the [[United States Steel Company]], by far the largest industrial corporation of the day.<ref>Some railroads were as large, however.</ref>

===Senior staff===

===Senior staff===

After 1868 he made New York City his base and seldom visited Pittsburgh, leaving daily operations in the hands of partners and senior subordinates.  Carnegie always maintained that the secret of his business success lay not in his own genius as a maker of steel, but in his ability to select the proper man for the job to be done. He was one of the first industrialists to hire scientists for research, and he suggested for his own epitaph, "Here lies a man who was able to surround himself with men far cleverer than himself." Carnegie hired the best steelmakers--his own brother, Thomas M. Carnegie (1843–1886) (who died young), [[Henry Clay Frick]], [[Charles M. Schwab]], and the person he considered the greatest steel man of them all, Capt. "Bill" Jones.  

After 1868 he made New York City his base and seldom visited Pittsburgh, leaving daily operations in the hands of partners and senior subordinates.  Carnegie always maintained that the secret of his business success lay not in his own genius as a maker of steel, but in his ability to select the proper man for the job to be done. He was one of the first industrialists to hire scientists for research, and he suggested for his own epitaph, "Here lies a man who was able to surround himself with men far cleverer than himself." Carnegie hired the best steelmakers—his own brother, Thomas M. Carnegie (1843–1886) (who died young), [[Henry Clay Frick]], [[Charles M. Schwab]], and the person he considered the greatest steel man of them all, Capt. "Bill" Jones.  

Carnegie was not at home inside the factory. He did best 500 miles away, selecting and backing the experts, going over the accounts sent by telegraph every day to look for cost savings, and visiting bankers and financiers to sell bonds and railroads to sell rails and bridgework. He was the greatest salesman of his day because he understood how his firm could best serve his customer's needs. For example, he worked with the brilliant civil engineer James Eads (1820-87), whose "Eads Bridge" across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri, symbolized the interrelationship of steel, railroads, and high finance during the [[Gilded Age]]. To build his great bridge, Eads relied on Carnegie to supply high-quality steel, meet urgent deadlines, give bridge-building counsel, and provide the financial acumen that became essential for raising large sums of money for Eads finally to complete his bridge in 1874.

Carnegie was not at home inside the factory. He did best 500 miles away, selecting and backing the experts, going over the accounts sent by telegraph every day to look for cost savings, and visiting bankers and financiers to sell bonds and railroads to sell rails and bridgework. He was the greatest salesman of his day because he understood how his firm could best serve his customer's needs. For example, he worked with the brilliant civil engineer James Eads (1820–87), whose "Eads Bridge" across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri, symbolized the interrelationship of steel, railroads, and high finance during the [[Gilded Age]]. To build his great bridge, Eads relied on Carnegie to supply high-quality steel, meet urgent deadlines, give bridge-building counsel, and provide the financial acumen that became essential for raising large sums of money for Eads finally to complete his bridge in 1874.

Carnegie was a visionary who studied philosophy and believed that the inevitability of evolution and progress depended on the right genius at the right time.  His faith in America as a land of business opportunity never wavered; much of the fast growth of his steel enterprise was due to his policy of expanding in periods of depression. He distrusted the ever-growing tendency of American business toward trust-building and overcapitalization, and the Carnegie Steel Co. remained a simple partnership arrangement greatly undercapitalized in terms of the actual value of its holdings and its annual profits.

Carnegie was a visionary who studied philosophy and believed that the inevitability of evolution and progress depended on the right genius at the right time.  His faith in America as a land of business opportunity never wavered; much of the fast growth of his steel enterprise was due to his policy of expanding in periods of depression. He distrusted the ever-growing tendency of American business toward trust-building and overcapitalization, and the Carnegie Steel Co. remained a simple partnership arrangement greatly undercapitalized in terms of the actual value of its holdings and its annual profits.

Carnegie prided himself on his enlightened labor policy, although his reputation for benevolence was publicly damaged by the tragic [[Homestead Strike]] of 1892. It began when company manager Henry Clay Frick sought to impose a wage cut (which Carnegie had approved). When the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers refused his terms and called a strike on June 29, Frick brought in about 300 Pinkerton detectives to protect workers who remained on the job. On July 6 an all-day armed clash occurred between strikers and detectives, in which strikers trapped a barge load of Pinkertons crossing the river and killed seven.<ref>For details see the PBS report at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/sfeature/mh_horror.html.</ref> The governor sent in 8500 militia to protect the plants and workers inside from further attacks by strikers. Under militia protection, nonunion laborers manned the steel mills from July 12 to November 20, when the strike collapsed. Frick's success permanently weakened unionism in the entire steel industry, which was not unionized successfully until the 1930s. Union members blamed Carnegie for the episode.

Carnegie prided himself on his enlightened labor policy, although his reputation for benevolence was publicly damaged by the tragic [[Homestead Strike]] of 1892. It began when company manager Henry Clay Frick sought to impose a wage cut (which Carnegie had approved). When the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers refused his terms and called a strike on June 29, Frick brought in about 300 Pinkerton detectives to protect workers who remained on the job. On July 6 an all-day armed clash occurred between strikers and detectives, in which strikers trapped a barge load of Pinkertons crossing the river and killed seven.<ref>For details see the PBS report at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/sfeature/mh_horror.html.</ref> The governor sent in 8500 militia to protect the plants and workers inside from further attacks by strikers. Under militia protection, nonunion laborers manned the steel mills from July 12 to November 20, when the strike collapsed. Frick's success permanently weakened unionism in the entire steel industry, which was not unionized successfully until the 1930s. Union members blamed Carnegie for the episode.

Carnegie originally was favorable toward the union in the 1870s and 1880s because it did not threaten profitability and helped guarantee steady production. It became the largest labor union in the country.  In 1886 he published a series of articles in the ''Forum'' magazine that revealed liberal position on labor policies and benevolence toward his workers. Scholars have since argued that Carnegie's anti-union position during the Homestead affair either represents a reversal of his earlier position or the insincerity of his professed convictions. However, a consideration of Homestead within the context of industry-wide developments in the relationship between labor unions and steel production indicates that a new emphasis on unskilled labor (a result of new technology and changes in market demand) undermined the strength of the union. The Homestead lockout did not therefore represent a shift in Carnegie's position toward labor unions; rather it was the result of a downturn in the steel market and changes in methods of production.<ref> Jonathan Rees, "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." ''Pennsylvania History'' 1997 64(4): 509-533. Issn: 0031-4528 </ref>

Carnegie originally was favorable toward the union in the 1870s and 1880s because it did not threaten profitability and helped guarantee steady production. It became the largest labor union in the country.  In 1886 he published a series of articles in the ''Forum'' magazine that revealed liberal position on labor policies and benevolence toward his workers. Scholars have since argued that Carnegie's anti-union position during the Homestead affair either represents a reversal of his earlier position or the insincerity of his professed convictions. However, a consideration of Homestead within the context of industry-wide developments in the relationship between labor unions and steel production indicates that a new emphasis on unskilled labor (a result of new technology and changes in market demand) undermined the strength of the union. The Homestead lockout did not therefore represent a shift in Carnegie's position toward labor unions; rather it was the result of a downturn in the steel market and changes in methods of production.<ref>Jonathan Rees, "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." ''Pennsylvania History'' 1997 64(4): 509-533. Issn: 0031-4528</ref>

Krause (1992) argues the "Battle for Homestead" represented a struggle between two competing, contradictory, and irreconcilable versions of [[Republicanism, U.S.|American Republicanism]]. One was Carnegie's belief in the inalienable right to private property and the right to accumulate capital and manage enterprise.  Individual entrepreneurship was the republican way to wealth for the individual and for society as a whole. In opposition was the version personified by labour reformer Thomas 'Beeswax' Taylor, which saw in the ideology of republicanism the guarantee of the workers' right to dignity and security as a group. The strikers' republicanism viewed labor as the inalienable property of the individual worker, rejected the "law" of supply and demand and sought the group action by unions to assert the rights.  They were not socialists and did not want government ownership, but they did want to control the work patterns on the factory floor regardless of the owner and his foremen. The unions were still thinking in terms of iron, when their expertise was decisive.  In the age of steel the white collar engineer made the critical decisions, not blue collar workers. The union defeat in 1892 did not simply mark the end of the steelworkers' union's power, it more importantly destroyed the hopes of realizing the aims of radical republicanism. After 1900 [[Samuel Gompers]] and the [[AFL]] unions worked inside the owners' model of republicanism and sought higher wages, while the rejected republicanism vision was incorporated into the Socialism of [[Eugene Debs]], who argued the workers should have full control by nationalizing industry and having a labor party run the government.

Krause (1992) argues the "Battle for Homestead" represented a struggle between two competing, contradictory, and irreconcilable versions of [[Republicanism, U.S.|American Republicanism]]. One was Carnegie's belief in the inalienable right to private property and the right to accumulate capital and manage enterprise.  Individual entrepreneurship was the republican way to wealth for the individual and for society as a whole. In opposition was the version personified by labour reformer Thomas 'Beeswax' Taylor, which saw in the ideology of republicanism the guarantee of the workers' right to dignity and security as a group. The strikers' republicanism viewed labor as the inalienable property of the individual worker, rejected the "law" of supply and demand and sought the group action by unions to assert the rights.  They were not socialists and did not want government ownership, but they did want to control the work patterns on the factory floor regardless of the owner and his foremen. The unions were still thinking in terms of iron, when their expertise was decisive.  In the age of steel the white collar engineer made the critical decisions, not blue collar workers. The union defeat in 1892 did not simply mark the end of the steelworkers' union's power, it more importantly destroyed the hopes of realizing the aims of radical republicanism. After 1900 [[Samuel Gompers]] and the [[AFL]] unions worked inside the owners' model of republicanism and sought higher wages, while the rejected republicanism vision was incorporated into the Socialism of [[Eugene Debs]], who argued the workers should have full control by nationalizing industry and having a labor party run the government.

In spite of his espousal of Herbert Spencer's philosophy and portions of the social Darwinism of the period, Carnegie remained deeply committed to many of the Chartist ideals of his boyhood. He rejected Spencer's attacks on philanthropy. In 1868 when, at the age of 33, his personal income had already reached $50,000 annually, he had written himself a note vowing to quit business shortly and never earn more than he was then earning, for "the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry." He did not keep this resolution, but as his fortune grew so did his concern for reconciling great wealth with social and political democracy. Out of this concern came his own solution in his famous "Gospel of Wealth," first published in ''The North American Review'' in 1889. Here Carnegie stated his doctrine concerning the responsibility of the man of wealth to society. He must use the fortune he has earned to provide greater opportunity for all and to increase man's knowledge of himself and of his universe.

In spite of his espousal of Herbert Spencer's philosophy and portions of the social Darwinism of the period, Carnegie remained deeply committed to many of the Chartist ideals of his boyhood. He rejected Spencer's attacks on philanthropy. In 1868 when, at the age of 33, his personal income had already reached $50,000 annually, he had written himself a note vowing to quit business shortly and never earn more than he was then earning, for "the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry." He did not keep this resolution, but as his fortune grew so did his concern for reconciling great wealth with social and political democracy. Out of this concern came his own solution in his famous "Gospel of Wealth," first published in ''The North American Review'' in 1889. Here Carnegie stated his doctrine concerning the responsibility of the man of wealth to society. He must use the fortune he has earned to provide greater opportunity for all and to increase man's knowledge of himself and of his universe.

In the 18 years after he retired from steel he succeeded in giving back to society over $300,000,000, largely through the creation of one of the most remarkable group of philanthropic [[foundations]] in the world. These foundations included, in Great Britain: the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust, the Carnegie Hero Fund Trust, the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust; and in the United States: the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, the Hero Fund Commission<ref> It rewarded peaceful (as opposed to warlike) individual acts of heroism.</ref>, the Carnegie Institute of Washington, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and the largest of all, the Carnegie Corporation of New York with a basic endowment of $135,000,000.  

In the 18 years after he retired from steel he succeeded in giving back to society over $300,000,000, largely through the creation of one of the most remarkable group of philanthropic [[foundations]] in the world. These foundations included, in Great Britain: the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust, the Carnegie Hero Fund Trust, the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust; and in the United States: the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, the Hero Fund Commission,<ref>It rewarded peaceful (as opposed to warlike) individual acts of heroism.</ref> the Carnegie Institute of Washington, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and the largest of all, the Carnegie Corporation of New York with a basic endowment of $135,000,000.  

The Carnegie Teachers' Pension Fund (now TIAA) created a pension system for college professors with an endowment of $10 million. To be eligible a college had to separate itself from control by a religious denomination, and many did so.

The Carnegie Teachers' Pension Fund (now TIAA) created a pension system for college professors with an endowment of $10 million. To be eligible a college had to separate itself from control by a religious denomination, and many did so.

His libraries served not only as free circulating collections of books, magazines and newspapers, but also provided classrooms for growing school districts, Red Cross stations, and public meeting spaces, not to mention permanent jobs for the graduates of newly formed library schools.  Academic libraries were built for 108 colleges.  Usually there was no charge to read or borrow; in New Zealand, however, local taxes were too low to support libraries and most charged subscription fees to their users.  The arrangements were always the same: Carnegie would provide the funds for the building but only after the municipal government had provided a site for the building and had passed an ordinance for the purchase of books and future maintenance of the library through taxation. This policy was in accord with Carnegie's philosophy that the dispensation of wealth for the benefit of society must never be in the form of free charity but rather must be as a buttress to the community's responsibility for its own welfare.

His libraries served not only as free circulating collections of books, magazines and newspapers, but also provided classrooms for growing school districts, Red Cross stations, and public meeting spaces, not to mention permanent jobs for the graduates of newly formed library schools.  Academic libraries were built for 108 colleges.  Usually there was no charge to read or borrow; in New Zealand, however, local taxes were too low to support libraries and most charged subscription fees to their users.  The arrangements were always the same: Carnegie would provide the funds for the building but only after the municipal government had provided a site for the building and had passed an ordinance for the purchase of books and future maintenance of the library through taxation. This policy was in accord with Carnegie's philosophy that the dispensation of wealth for the benefit of society must never be in the form of free charity but rather must be as a buttress to the community's responsibility for its own welfare.

In 1901, Carnegie offered to donate $100,000 to the city of Richmond, Virginia, for a public library. The city council had to furnish a site for the building and guarantee that $10,000 in municipal funds would be budgeted for the library each year. Despite the support from the majority of Richmond's civic leaders, the city council rejected Carnegie's offer. A combination of aversion to new taxes, fear of modernization, and fear that Carnegie might require the city to admit black patrons to his library account for the local government's refusal.<ref>Carolyn H. Leatherman, "Richmond Considers a Free Public Library: Andrew Carnegie's Offer of 1901." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 1988 96(2): 181-192. Issn: 0042-6636 </ref> In 1903 union leaders in Wheeling, West Virginia, blocked the acceptance of a Carnegie library there.  The Detroit Library subsisted on library fines and inadequate city funds; Carnegie offered $750,000 in 1901 but was turned down because it was "tainted money";  after nine more years of underfunding Detroit took the money.

In 1901, Carnegie offered to donate $100,000 to the city of Richmond, Virginia, for a public library. The city council had to furnish a site for the building and guarantee that $10,000 in municipal funds would be budgeted for the library each year. Despite the support from the majority of Richmond's civic leaders, the city council rejected Carnegie's offer. A combination of aversion to new taxes, fear of modernization, and fear that Carnegie might require the city to admit black patrons to his library account for the local government's refusal.<ref>Carolyn H. Leatherman, "Richmond Considers a Free Public Library: Andrew Carnegie's Offer of 1901." ''Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'' 1988 96(2): 181-192. Issn: 0042-6636</ref> In 1903 union leaders in Wheeling, West Virginia, blocked the acceptance of a Carnegie library there.  The Detroit Library subsisted on library fines and inadequate city funds; Carnegie offered $750,000 in 1901 but was turned down because it was "tainted money";  after nine more years of underfunding Detroit took the money.

==Back to Scotland==

==Back to Scotland==

He was engaged to Louise Whitfield of New York for many years, but married her in 1886 at age 51 only after his mother died in 1886.  Carnegie spent at least six months of each year with his wife in Scotland. Soon after the birth of his only child, Margaret,<ref> 1897-1990) See her obituary in the ''New York Times'' at http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDD173DF932A15757C0A966958260</ref>  he purchased a 30,000 acre estate in northern Scotland on the Firth of Dornoch and built the castle of Skibo. Here each summer, Carnegie, a white-bearded and kind-faced patriarch played the Scottish laird at his estate, as guests were led into dinner by a piper. He entertained those people, particularly in the world of literature, science, and education, who interested him most.  He was friend of [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Matthew Arnold]] and was closely associated with such Liberal statesmen as [[William E. Gladstone]].  Carnegie helped to finance the Gladstonian Liberal Party after the split over home rule in 1886. His closest friend was [[John Morley]], writer, historian, and leader of the British Liberal party.  Carnegie had acquired American citizenship as a minor when his father became a naturalized citizen in the early 1850s. He retained dual citizenship, however, and in the 1880s he seriously (but secretly) considered standing for election to the British Parliament. To that end in 1884 he owned or controlled seven daily newspapers and weeklies in Britain.

He was engaged to Louise Whitfield of New York for many years, but married her in 1886 at age 51 only after his mother died in 1886.  Carnegie spent at least six months of each year with his wife in Scotland. Soon after the birth of his only child, Margaret,<ref>1897-1990) See her obituary in the ''New York Times'' at http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEEDD173DF932A15757C0A966958260</ref>  he purchased a 30,000 acre estate in northern Scotland on the Firth of Dornoch and built the castle of Skibo. Here each summer, Carnegie, a white-bearded and kind-faced patriarch played the Scottish laird at his estate, as guests were led into dinner by a piper. He entertained those people, particularly in the world of literature, science, and education, who interested him most.  He was friend of [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Matthew Arnold]] and was closely associated with such Liberal statesmen as [[William E. Gladstone]].  Carnegie helped to finance the Gladstonian Liberal Party after the split over home rule in 1886. His closest friend was [[John Morley]], writer, historian, and leader of the British Liberal party.  Carnegie had acquired American citizenship as a minor when his father became a naturalized citizen in the early 1850s. He retained dual citizenship, however, and in the 1880s he seriously (but secretly) considered standing for election to the British Parliament. To that end in 1884 he owned or controlled seven daily newspapers and weeklies in Britain.

==Peace activist==

==Peace activist==

In his last years, Carnegie became convinced that war was man's greatest evil, and he devoted much of his time and fortune toward the securing of international peace. He built the Pan American Union building in Washington, D.C., to promote hemispheric peace and [[the Hague]] Peace Palace in [[the Netherlands]] to support international arbitration. The outbreak of World War I came as a tragic conclusion to all of his hopes, and although he supported the Allied cause, he never recovered from the shock of the war he had worked so hard to prevent, and he retired almost completely from the public scene. He died in Lenox, Massachusetts, on Aug. 11, 1919, with an estate of $30 million (of which $20 million was given away as well).

In his last years, Carnegie became convinced that war was man's greatest evil, and he devoted much of his time and fortune toward the securing of international peace. He built the Pan American Union building in Washington, D.C., to promote hemispheric peace and [[the Hague]] Peace Palace in [[the Netherlands]] to support international arbitration. The outbreak of World War I came as a tragic conclusion to all of his hopes, and although he supported the Allied cause, he never recovered from the shock of the war he had worked so hard to prevent, and he retired almost completely from the public scene. He died in Lenox, Massachusetts, on Aug. 11, 1919, with an estate of $30 million (of which $20 million was given away as well).

==Author==

==Author==

He wrote 70 articles on current events for leading magazines in Britain and the U.S., and eight books. He wrote his own work, without ghostwriters.  ''The Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' was published posthumously in 1920. "Wealth" in ''The North American Review'' (June 1889) was the most famous essay.<ref> Online at [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0148-88]</ref> In it he expressed the view that wealth wisely administered for the common good became truly the property of the many. His articles on capital, labor, the industrial problem, and other topics offer an easily available antidote for the stereotype of the "Robber Baron."

He wrote 70 articles on current events for leading magazines in Britain and the U.S., and eight books. He wrote his own work, without ghostwriters.  ''The Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' was published posthumously in 1920. "Wealth" in ''The North American Review'' (June 1889) was the most famous essay.<ref>[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0148-88 Online at]</ref> In it he expressed the view that wealth wisely administered for the common good became truly the property of the many. His articles on capital, labor, the industrial problem, and other topics offer an easily available antidote for the stereotype of the "Robber Baron."

==Legacy==

==Legacy==

His major trusts and foundations continue in operation in the 21st century, including the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust, the Carnegie Institute, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Carnegie Corporation and Carnegie-Mellon University<ref> Established in 1903 as the Carnegie Technical Schools; in 1912, it became Carnegie Institute of Technology and began granting four-year degrees. In 1967 it merged with nearby Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to form Carnegie Mellon University.</ref>. The Carnegie Corporation of New York, with a capital fund of $3.0 billion, remains a force in philanthropy at the rate of $100 million a year and still supports libraries.<ref> See its webpage at http://www.carnegie.org</ref>

His major trusts and foundations continue in operation in the 21st century, including the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust, the Carnegie Institute, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Carnegie Corporation and Carnegie-Mellon University.<ref>Established in 1903 as the Carnegie Technical Schools; in 1912, it became Carnegie Institute of Technology and began granting four-year degrees. In 1967 it merged with nearby Mellon Institute of Industrial Research to form Carnegie Mellon University.</ref> The Carnegie Corporation of New York, with a capital fund of $3.0 billion, remains a force in philanthropy at the rate of $100 million a year and still supports libraries.<ref>See its webpage at http://www.carnegie.org</ref>

== See Also ==

== See also ==

* [[:Category:Billionaires|Billionaires]]

* [[:Category:Billionaires|Billionaires]]

* [[Steel industry]]

* [[Steel industry]]

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Krass, Peter.  ''Carnegie.'' (2002). 612 pp., a standard scholarly biography, along with Nasaw and Wall. [[http://www.questia.com/library/book/carnegie-by-peter-krass.jsp online edition]

* Krass, Peter.  ''Carnegie.'' (2002). 612 pp., a standard scholarly biography, along with Nasaw and Wall. [http://www.questia.com/library/book/carnegie-by-peter-krass.jsp online edition]

* Krause, Paul.  ''The Battle for Homestead, 1880-1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel.'' U. of Pittsburgh Pr., 1992. 548 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Battle-Homestead-1880-1892-Politics-Pittsburg/dp/0822954664/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191910902&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Krause, Paul.  ''The Battle for Homestead, 1880-1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel.'' U. of Pittsburgh Pr., 1992. 548 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Battle-Homestead-1880-1892-Politics-Pittsburg/dp/0822954664/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1191910902&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Jones, Theodore.  ''Carnegie Libraries Across America: A Public Legacy.'' 1997. 181 pp.   

* Jones, Theodore.  ''Carnegie Libraries Across America: A Public Legacy.'' 1997. 181 pp.