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[[Image:Hamilt$$.jpg|thumb|425px|left]]

[[Image:Hamilt$$.jpg|thumb|425px|left]]

Hamilton built a national network of supporters that emerged about 1792–93 as the Federalist Party. In response, Jefferson and Madison built a network of supporters in Congress, then reached out to state leaders; their party emerged in 1792-93 as the ''Republicans''<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 Thomas Jefferson to President Washington, May 23, 1792] "The republican party, who wish to preserve the government in it's [sic] present form, are fewer in number. They are fewer even when joined by the two, three, or half dozen anti-federalists,..."<br>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591 James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794.] "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican Party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." </ref>  The elections of 1792 were the first to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense, as Jefferson strategist [[John Beckley]] put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest." In New York, the race for governor was organized along these lines. The candidates were [[John Jay]], a Hamiltonian, and incumbent [[George Clinton]], who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, p. 288</ref>

Hamilton built a national network of supporters that emerged about 1792–93 as the Federalist Party. In response, Jefferson and Madison built a network of supporters in Congress, then reached out to state leaders; their party emerged in 1792-93 as the ''Republicans''<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 Thomas Jefferson to President Washington, May 23, 1792] "The republican party, who wish to preserve the government in it's [sic] present form, are fewer in number. They are fewer even when joined by the two, three, or half dozen anti-federalists,..."<br>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591 James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794.] "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican Party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose."</ref>  The elections of 1792 were the first to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense, as Jefferson strategist [[John Beckley]] put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest." In New York, the race for governor was organized along these lines. The candidates were [[John Jay]], a Hamiltonian, and incumbent [[George Clinton]], who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, p. 288</ref>

In 1793, the first [[Democratic-Republican societies]] were formed. They supported the [[French Revolution]], which had just seen the execution of king [[Louis XVI]], and generally supported the Jeffersonian cause. The word "democrat" was proposed by [[Citizen Genet]] for the societies, and the Federalists quickly began to ridicule Jefferson's friends as "democrats". After Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they mostly faded away.  

In 1793, the first [[Democratic-Republican societies]] were formed. They supported the [[French Revolution]], which had just seen the execution of king [[Louis XVI]], and generally supported the Jeffersonian cause. The word "democrat" was proposed by [[Citizen Genet]] for the societies, and the Federalists quickly began to ridicule Jefferson's friends as "democrats". After Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they mostly faded away.  

[[Image:Fed-vs-r.jpg|thumb]]

[[Image:Fed-vs-r.jpg|thumb]]

When war threatened with Britain in 1794, Washington sent [[John Jay]] to negotiate the [[Jay treaty]] with Britain; it was signed in late 1794, and ratified in 1795. It averted a possible war and settled many (but not all) the outstanding issues between the U.S. and Britain., <ref>Elkins and McKitrick, 405-12</ref> the Jeffersonians vehemently denounced it as a sell-out to Britain, saying it threatened to undermine republicanism by giving the aristocratic British and their Federalist allies too much influence.  The Federalists said it avoided war, reduced the Indian threat, created good trade relations with the world's foremost economic power, and ended lingering disputes from the Revolutionary War. The Federalists used the enormous prestige of President Washington to secure senate approval by the needed 2/3 vote.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, 417-8; Goodman (1964) 71-2.</ref> The fierce debates over the Jay Treaty in 1794-96 according to William Nisbet Chambers, nationalized politics and  turned a faction in Congress into a nationwide party. To fight the treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns."<ref>Chambers, ''Political Parties'' p. 80</ref> When Jefferson came to power in 1801 he honored the Jay treaty, but new disputes with Britain ended friendly relations in 1805 and led to the [[War of 1812]]. <ref>Miller, ''Federalist Era'' pp 165-78</ref>

When war threatened with Britain in 1794, Washington sent [[John Jay]] to negotiate the [[Jay treaty]] with Britain; it was signed in late 1794, and ratified in 1795. It averted a possible war and settled many (but not all) the outstanding issues between the U.S. and Britain.,<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, 405-12</ref> the Jeffersonians vehemently denounced it as a sell-out to Britain, saying it threatened to undermine republicanism by giving the aristocratic British and their Federalist allies too much influence.  The Federalists said it avoided war, reduced the Indian threat, created good trade relations with the world's foremost economic power, and ended lingering disputes from the Revolutionary War. The Federalists used the enormous prestige of President Washington to secure senate approval by the needed 2/3 vote.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, 417-8; Goodman (1964) 71-2.</ref> The fierce debates over the Jay Treaty in 1794-96 according to William Nisbet Chambers, nationalized politics and  turned a faction in Congress into a nationwide party. To fight the treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns."<ref>Chambers, ''Political Parties'' p. 80</ref> When Jefferson came to power in 1801 he honored the Jay treaty, but new disputes with Britain ended friendly relations in 1805 and led to the [[War of 1812]].<ref>Miller, ''Federalist Era'' pp 165-78</ref>

In 1796 Jefferson challenged [[John Adams]] for the presidency and lost. The [[Electoral College]] made the decision, and it was chosen by the state legislatures, which still lacked parties.

In 1796 Jefferson challenged [[John Adams]] for the presidency and lost. The [[Electoral College]] made the decision, and it was chosen by the state legislatures, which still lacked parties.

==Newspapers as party weapons==  

==Newspapers as party weapons==

[[Image:~party3.JPG|thumb|Federalist poster about 1800. Washington (in heaven) tells partisans to keep the pillars of Federalism, Republicanism and Democracy]]  

[[Image:~party3.JPG|thumb|Federalist poster about 1800. Washington (in heaven) tells partisans to keep the pillars of Federalism, Republicanism and Democracy]]  

[[Newspaper|Newspapers]] became party weapons. [[John Fenno]] began publishing his ''Gazette of the United States'' in April 1789 hoping it would become the official paper of the new government; soon Hamilton was encouraging and subsidizing him. Jefferson and Madison persuaded [[Philip M. Freneau]], a brilliant poet, to found the ''National Gazette'' in Philadelphia in October 1791. The ''National Gazette'' at first served as a successful political tool for the Jeffersonians as it defined arguments against Hamilton's policies while rebutting Fenno's editorials. The ''National Gazette'' collapsed in 1793 due to weak circulation and the political fallout over Jefferson and Madison's financial involvement in founding the paper.  

[[Newspaper]]s became party weapons. [[John Fenno]] began publishing his ''Gazette of the United States'' in April 1789 hoping it would become the official paper of the new government; soon Hamilton was encouraging and subsidizing him. Jefferson and Madison persuaded [[Philip M. Freneau]], a brilliant poet, to found the ''National Gazette'' in Philadelphia in October 1791. The ''National Gazette'' at first served as a successful political tool for the Jeffersonians as it defined arguments against Hamilton's policies while rebutting Fenno's editorials. The ''National Gazette'' collapsed in 1793 due to weak circulation and the political fallout over Jefferson and Madison's financial involvement in founding the paper.  

[[Image:NEWS1800.JPG|thumb|left|rapid growth of party newspapers]]

[[Image:NEWS1800.JPG|thumb|left|rapid growth of party newspapers]]

==Inventing campaign techniques==

==Inventing campaign techniques==

Both parties invented entirely new campaign techniques that became the core of American political practice.  The Federalists took the lead in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast their statements and editorialize in their favor.  In 1796 the Federalist papers outnumbered the Republicans by 4-1.  Every year more paper began publishing; in 1800 the Federalists still had a 2-1 numerical advantage.  Most papers, on each side, were weeklies with a circulation of 300 to 1000.<ref> Stewart, ''Opposition Press, p. 622</ref> Jefferson systematically subsidized the editors. [[Fisher Ames]], a leading Federalist, who used the term "Jacobin" to link Jefferson's followers to the terrorists of the French Revolution, blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson. They were, he wrote, "an overmatch for any Government.... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition." <ref>Cunningham, 1957 p 167</ref>  Historians echo Ames' assessment.  As one explains, "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand." Outstanding phrasemakers included editor [[William Duane]] and party leaders [[Albert Gallatin]], [[Thomas Cooper]] and of course Jefferson himself. <ref>Tinkcom 271</ref> Meanwhile [[John J. Beckley]] of Pennsylvania, an ardent partisan, invented new campaign techniques (such as mass distribution of pamphlets and handwritten ballots) that generated the grass-roots support and unprecedented levels of voter turnout for the Jeffersonians.

Both parties invented entirely new campaign techniques that became the core of American political practice.  The Federalists took the lead in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast their statements and editorialize in their favor.  In 1796 the Federalist papers outnumbered the Republicans by 4-1.  Every year more paper began publishing; in 1800 the Federalists still had a 2-1 numerical advantage.  Most papers, on each side, were weeklies with a circulation of 300 to 1000.<ref>Stewart, ''Opposition Press, p. 622</ref> Jefferson systematically subsidized the editors. [[Fisher Ames]], a leading Federalist, who used the term "Jacobin" to link Jefferson's followers to the terrorists of the French Revolution, blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson. They were, he wrote, "an overmatch for any Government.... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition." <ref>Cunningham, 1957 p 167</ref>  Historians echo Ames' assessment.  As one explains, "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand." Outstanding phrasemakers included editor [[William Duane]] and party leaders [[Albert Gallatin]], [[Thomas Cooper]] and of course Jefferson himself.<ref>Tinkcom 271</ref> Meanwhile [[John J. Beckley]] of Pennsylvania, an ardent partisan, invented new campaign techniques (such as mass distribution of pamphlets and handwritten ballots) that generated the grass-roots support and unprecedented levels of voter turnout for the Jeffersonians.

The Jeffersonian majority in Congress and key states was so large that it tended to split into factions.  The minority faction, which tended to collaborate with Federalists, was called ''[[Quids]]'' in Pennsylvania, New York and Virginia, though the three groups were not directly connected.  After years as Jefferson's leader in the House, [[John Randolph of Roanoke]] led a split-away faction in Congress called Quids.  

The Jeffersonian majority in Congress and key states was so large that it tended to split into factions.  The minority faction, which tended to collaborate with Federalists, was called ''[[Quids]]'' in Pennsylvania, New York and Virginia, though the three groups were not directly connected.  After years as Jefferson's leader in the House, [[John Randolph of Roanoke]] led a split-away faction in Congress called Quids.  

As president, Jefferson worked to cleanse the government of Adam's "midnight" Federalist appointments made days before Jefferson took office. He withheld the commissions of 25 of 42 midnight appointment judges and removed Army officers. The sense that the nation needed two rival parties to balance each other had not been fully accepted by either party; Hamilton had viewed Jefferson's election as the failure of the Federalist experiment. The rhetoric of the day was cataclysmic—election of the opposition meant the enemy would ruin the nation. Jefferson's foreign policy was not exactly pro-Napoleon, but it applied pressure on Britain to stop impressment of American sailors and other hostile acts. By engineering an [[Embargo Act of 1807|embargo]] of trade against Britain, Jefferson and Madison plunged the nation into economic depression, ruined much of the business of Federalist New England, and finally precipitated the [[War of 1812]] with a much larger and more powerful foe. <ref> Smelser, ''Democratic Republic''</ref>

As president, Jefferson worked to cleanse the government of Adam's "midnight" Federalist appointments made days before Jefferson took office. He withheld the commissions of 25 of 42 midnight appointment judges and removed Army officers. The sense that the nation needed two rival parties to balance each other had not been fully accepted by either party; Hamilton had viewed Jefferson's election as the failure of the Federalist experiment. The rhetoric of the day was cataclysmic—election of the opposition meant the enemy would ruin the nation. Jefferson's foreign policy was not exactly pro-Napoleon, but it applied pressure on Britain to stop impressment of American sailors and other hostile acts. By engineering an [[Embargo Act of 1807|embargo]] of trade against Britain, Jefferson and Madison plunged the nation into economic depression, ruined much of the business of Federalist New England, and finally precipitated the [[War of 1812]] with a much larger and more powerful foe.<ref>Smelser, ''Democratic Republic''</ref>

The Federalists vigorously criticized the government, and gained strength in the industrial Northeast. However, they committed a major blunder in 1814. That year the semi-secret "[[Hartford Convention]]" passed resolutions that verged on secession; their publication ruined the Federalist party. It had been limping along for years, with strength in New England and scattered eastern states but practically no strength in the West. While Federalists helped invent or develop numerous campaign techniques (such as conventions), their elitist bias alienated the middle class, thus allowing the Jeffersonians to claim they represented the true spirit of "republicanism."<ref> Banner, ''To the Hartford Convention'' (1970)</ref>

The Federalists vigorously criticized the government, and gained strength in the industrial Northeast. However, they committed a major blunder in 1814. That year the semi-secret "[[Hartford Convention]]" passed resolutions that verged on secession; their publication ruined the Federalist party. It had been limping along for years, with strength in New England and scattered eastern states but practically no strength in the West. While Federalists helped invent or develop numerous campaign techniques (such as conventions), their elitist bias alienated the middle class, thus allowing the Jeffersonians to claim they represented the true spirit of "republicanism."<ref>Banner, ''To the Hartford Convention'' (1970)</ref>

==State parties==

==State parties==

===Connecticut===

===Connecticut===

New England was always the stronghold of the Federalist party. One historian explains how well organized it was in Connecticut:

New England was always the stronghold of the Federalist party. One historian explains how well organized it was in Connecticut:

:It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of the peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work.... Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army." In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election.  This was the Federalist machine. <ref>Richard J. Purcell, ''Connecticut in Transition: 1775-1818'' 1963. p. 190.</ref>

:It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of the peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work.... Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army." In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election.  This was the Federalist machine.<ref>Richard J. Purcell, ''Connecticut in Transition: 1775-1818'' 1963. p. 190.</ref>

Given the power of the Federalists the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the Connecticut state Republican leadership sent  town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections.  Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty."  Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total up the number of taxpayers, the number of eligible voters, how many were "decided republicans," "decided federalists," or "doubtful," and finally to count the number of supporters who were not currently eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election.  The returns eventually went to the state manager, who issues directions to laggard town to get all the eligibles to the town meetings, help the young men qualify to vote, to nominate a full ticket for local elections, and to print and distribute the party ticket. (The [[secret ballot]] did not appear for a century. ) <ref>Noble E. Cunningham, Jr. ''The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801-1809'' (1963) p 129</ref>  This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.

Given the power of the Federalists the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the Connecticut state Republican leadership sent  town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections.  Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty."  Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total up the number of taxpayers, the number of eligible voters, how many were "decided republicans," "decided federalists," or "doubtful," and finally to count the number of supporters who were not currently eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election.  The returns eventually went to the state manager, who issues directions to laggard town to get all the eligibles to the town meetings, help the young men qualify to vote, to nominate a full ticket for local elections, and to print and distribute the party ticket. (The [[secret ballot]] did not appear for a century. ) <ref>Noble E. Cunningham, Jr. ''The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801-1809'' (1963) p 129</ref>  This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.

* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. , "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 13 (Jan. 1956), 40-52, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(195601)3%3A13%3A1%3C40%3AJBAEAP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A in JSTOR]

* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. , "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," ''William and Mary Quarterly'', 13 (Jan. 1956), 40-52, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(195601)3%3A13%3A1%3C40%3AJBAEAP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A in JSTOR]

* Koch, Adrienne. ''Jefferson and Madison: The Great Collaboration.'' (1950). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8520360 online edition]

* Koch, Adrienne. ''Jefferson and Madison: The Great Collaboration.'' (1950). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8520360 online edition]

* Malone, Dumas. ''Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty'' v 3;  ''Jefferson the President: First Term 1801 - 1805'' vol 4; ''Jefferson the President: Second term, 1805-1809'' vol 5; (1948-70), the standard multivolume biography   

* Malone, Dumas. ''Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty'' v 3;  ''Jefferson the President: First Term 1801 - 1805'' vol 4; ''Jefferson the President: Second term, 1805-1809'' vol 5; (1948–70), the standard multivolume biography   

*  Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full scale biography; [www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97872357  online edition]

*  Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full scale biography; [www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=97872357  online edition]

*  Peterson, Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82266123 online edition]

*  Peterson, Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82266123 online edition]

[[Category:United States Political Terms]]

[[Category:United States Political Terms]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[Category:United States History]]

[[category:Early National U.S.]]

[[Category:Early National U.S.]]

[[category:Democratic Party]]

[[Category:Democratic Party]]