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'''German Americans''' are the largest ethnic group in the United States, with over 45 million people, comprising over a fourth of the white population.<ref> That is, American of German descent outnumber both African Americans and [[Latinos]].</ref>  They are concentrated in the Midwest, and in eastern metropolitan areas. They comprise numerous different groups, all of whom arrived speaking German. Some came in search of religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Germany, and others simply for the chance to start afresh in the New World. Today California and Pennsylvania have the largest populations of German descent, with over six million Germans residing in the two states alone. The Midwest has the largest proportion of German Americans, with the group dominant in many rural areas. It is one of the two or three largest groups in many major metropolitan areas, including New York, Chicago, Baltimore and St. Louis.  The rural Midwest from Indiana through the Dakotas has a large german population.

'''German Americans''' are the largest ethnic group in the United States, with over 45 million people, comprising over a fourth of the white population.<ref>That is, American of German descent outnumber both African Americans and [[Latinos]].</ref>  They are concentrated in the Midwest, and in eastern metropolitan areas. They comprise numerous different groups, all of whom arrived speaking German. Some came in search of religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Germany, and others simply for the chance to start afresh in the New World. Today California and Pennsylvania have the largest populations of German descent, with over six million Germans residing in the two states alone. The Midwest has the largest proportion of German Americans, with the group dominant in many rural areas. It is one of the two or three largest groups in many major metropolitan areas, including New York, Chicago, Baltimore and St. Louis.  The rural Midwest from Indiana through the Dakotas has a large german population.

[[File:German1910.jpg|thumb|420px|Germania in 1910]]

[[File:German1910.jpg|thumb|420px|Germania in 1910]]

==Migration trends==

==Migration trends==

During the 18^th and throughout most of the 19^th century Germans were usually the largest or second largest group of newcomers to the United States. Large numbers of Germans migrated into the U.S. from the 1680s to the 1760s. After a long pause, large numbers of Germans again came to the U.S. from 1840 to 1890.  The four primary causes for Germans seeking a new life in America include push factors: worsening opportunities for farm ownership in Germany, persecution of some religious groups, and military conscription; and pull factors, with religious freedom and better economic conditions in the U.S., especially the chance for farmers to own land.  

During the 18th and throughout most of the 19th century Germans were usually the largest or second largest group of newcomers to the United States. Large numbers of Germans migrated into the U.S. from the 1680s to the 1760s. After a long pause, large numbers of Germans again came to the U.S. from 1840 to 1890.  The four primary causes for Germans seeking a new life in America include push factors: worsening opportunities for farm ownership in Germany, persecution of some religious groups, and military conscription; and pull factors, with religious freedom and better economic conditions in the U.S., especially the chance for farmers to own land.  

The Germans who settled America were culturally and religiously diverse.  The immigrants were as diverse as Germany itself, except that very few aristocrats or upper middle class businessmen arrived.  

The Germans who settled America were culturally and religiously diverse.  The immigrants were as diverse as Germany itself, except that very few aristocrats or upper middle class businessmen arrived.  

The first German settlement in Pennsylvania was founded in 1683. William Penn actively recruited in the Rhineland for his colony in 1679, producing the 1683 migration of Krefelder organized at  Frankfurt that created "Germantown" (now part of Philadelphia). The tide to Pennsylvania swelled between 1725 and 1775, when they comprised a third of the colony's population. The Pennsylvania Germans were called '''"Pennsylvania Dutch"''' by English speakers who mistranslated  "Deutsch" ("German") as "Dutch". They were comprised mostly of Lutherans and Reformed, along with smaller groups of Moravians, Mennonites, Amish, and other religious sects. They were famed for developing a rich religious life with a strong musical culture. There were few German Catholics or Jews in America before the 1830s.

The first German settlement in Pennsylvania was founded in 1683. William Penn actively recruited in the Rhineland for his colony in 1679, producing the 1683 migration of Krefelder organized at  Frankfurt that created "Germantown" (now part of Philadelphia). The tide to Pennsylvania swelled between 1725 and 1775, when they comprised a third of the colony's population. The Pennsylvania Germans were called '''"Pennsylvania Dutch"''' by English speakers who mistranslated  "Deutsch" ("German") as "Dutch". They were comprised mostly of Lutherans and Reformed, along with smaller groups of Moravians, Mennonites, Amish, and other religious sects. They were famed for developing a rich religious life with a strong musical culture. There were few German Catholics or Jews in America before the 1830s.

The German farmers were renowned for the highly productive animal husbandry and agricultural practices. Politically, there were inactive until 1740, when they joined a Quaker-led coalition that took control of the legislature, which generally supported the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Fries Rebellion ]] was a rural protest movement among Pennsylvania Germans in 1799 against the direct federal tax on land and houses imposed by the [[Federalist Party]] in 1798 to pay for a threatened war against France.  The resistance was in part a revolt of the Kirchenleute (Pennsylvania Germans of Lutheran and German Reformed background) against the Sektenleute (members of the pacifist Moravian and Quaker denominations, whom the Federalists favored with positions as tax assessors and collectors). The leaders of the rebellion were restrained and kept the protest movement under control, even withdrawing the protesters before the movement got out of hand. Some were convicted but President [[John Adams]] gave them pardons.

The German farmers were renowned for the highly productive animal husbandry and agricultural practices. Politically, there were inactive until 1740, when they joined a Quaker-led coalition that took control of the legislature, which generally supported the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Fries Rebellion]] was a rural protest movement among Pennsylvania Germans in 1799 against the direct federal tax on land and houses imposed by the [[Federalist Party]] in 1798 to pay for a threatened war against France.  The resistance was in part a revolt of the Kirchenleute (Pennsylvania Germans of Lutheran and German Reformed background) against the Sektenleute (members of the pacifist Moravian and Quaker denominations, whom the Federalists favored with positions as tax assessors and collectors). The leaders of the rebellion were restrained and kept the protest movement under control, even withdrawing the protesters before the movement got out of hand. Some were convicted but President [[John Adams]] gave them pardons.

   

   

Palatine migration to upstate New York was one of the largest single movements to colonial America. By 1711, for example, seven villages had been established in New York on the Robert Livingston manor. By 1750, the Germans occupied a 12 mile stretch along the left bank of the Mohawk River. The soil was excellent; some 500 houses had been built, mostly of stone; and the region prospered in spite of Indian raids. Herkimer was the best-known of the German settlements in a region long known as the "German Flats." The most famous figure was editor [[John Peter Zenger]], who led the fight for freedom of the press in America. Later [[John Jacob Astor]], a German immigrant from Baden, became the richest man in America from fur trading and New York City real estate.

Palatine migration to upstate New York was one of the largest single movements to colonial America. By 1711, for example, seven villages had been established in New York on the Robert Livingston manor. By 1750, the Germans occupied a 12 mile stretch along the left bank of the Mohawk River. The soil was excellent; some 500 houses had been built, mostly of stone; and the region prospered in spite of Indian raids. Herkimer was the best-known of the German settlements in a region long known as the "German Flats." The most famous figure was editor [[John Peter Zenger]], who led the fight for freedom of the press in America. Later [[John Jacob Astor]], a German immigrant from Baden, became the richest man in America from fur trading and New York City real estate.

A large German colony in Virginia called Germanna was located near Culpeper; it was founded by two waves of colonists in 1714 and 1717. Large settlements were formed in North Carolina, especially the Moravian town of Salem.

A large German colony in Virginia called Germanna was located near Culpeper; it was founded by two waves of colonists in 1714 and 1717. Large settlements were formed in North Carolina, especially the Moravian town of Salem.

Texas had about 20,000 Germans in the 1850s:<ref> Terry G. Jordan, ''Germans," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/png2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2006)]</ref>

Texas had about 20,000 Germans in the 1850s:<ref>Terry G. Jordan, ''Germans," [http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/GG/png2.html ''Handbook of Texas Online'' (2006)]</ref>

:They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveowners; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom. The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had atheist Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.

:They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveowners; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom. The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had atheist Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.

Over 250,000 German-speaking Swiss arrived, 1820-1920; they had previously been mountain farmers, but most settled in rural America and sought out high quality flat lands; the 3,520 who were scattered through the mountains of Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia were the exception.   

Over 250,000 German-speaking Swiss arrived, 1820-1920; they had previously been mountain farmers, but most settled in rural America and sought out high quality flat lands; the 3,520 who were scattered through the mountains of Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia were the exception.   

New Glarus, Wisconsin, orignally an all-Swiss dairy town, has become a tourist center featuring the Swiss American German language heritage.<ref>Ernest Menolfi and Leo Schelbert, "The Wisconsin Swiss: a Portrait." ''Swiss American Historical Society Review'' 1989 25(1): 11-35. Issn: 0883-4814 </ref>

New Glarus, Wisconsin, orignally an all-Swiss dairy town, has become a tourist center featuring the Swiss American German language heritage.<ref>Ernest Menolfi and Leo Schelbert, "The Wisconsin Swiss: a Portrait." ''Swiss American Historical Society Review'' 1989 25(1): 11-35. Issn: 0883-4814</ref>

In terms of religion, most Swiss immigrants were Reformed or Lutheran and merged into larger German communities.  Some were Mennonites or belonged to small, highly traditional sects like the Amish. They formed tight-knit closed communities that still exist.

In terms of religion, most Swiss immigrants were Reformed or Lutheran and merged into larger German communities.  Some were Mennonites or belonged to small, highly traditional sects like the Amish. They formed tight-knit closed communities that still exist.

====Russian ("Volga") Germans====

====Russian ("Volga") Germans====

The German Russians or "Volga Germans" were the most traditional of all German-speaking arrivals. They were Germans who had lived for generations along the Volga River in Russia; about 100,000 immigrated by 1900 and settled in relatively poor lands in the Dakotas, Kansas and Nebraska--the south-central part of North Dakota was known as the German-Russian triangle.  They were Lutherans, Mennonites or Catholics but no educated Germans-speaking pastors, teachers, professional men, or tradesmen had joined the peasants who migrated to America.  The older generation was still speaking German (they never spoke Russian) in the 1940s, while the next generation was bilingual.  Negatively influenced by their miseries and isolation in Russia, they saw themselves a downtrodden class cheated by townspeople, businessmen and railroads; they raised large families with harsh discipline; they wanted their children to be farmers so took them out of school around age 14; they treated their womenfolk as inferior, and were slow to diversify their farms. Many farmers specialized in sugar beets--still a major crop in the upper Great Plains. In World War I (1917-18) their patriotism was ambiguous; distrusted by their neighbors they rejected prohibition and Americanization efforts and supported radical far-left political movements such as the NPL ("Non-Partisan League").<ref>Elwyn B. Robinson, ''History of North Dakota'' (1966) pp. 285-87, 557; Gordon L. Iseminger, "Are We Germans, or Russians, or Americans? The McIntosh County German-Russians During World War I," ''North Dakota History'' 1992 59(2): 2-16, </ref>

The German Russians or "Volga Germans" were the most traditional of all German-speaking arrivals. They were Germans who had lived for generations along the Volga River in Russia; about 100,000 immigrated by 1900 and settled in relatively poor lands in the Dakotas, Kansas and Nebraska—the south-central part of North Dakota was known as the German-Russian triangle.  They were Lutherans, Mennonites or Catholics but no educated Germans-speaking pastors, teachers, professional men, or tradesmen had joined the peasants who migrated to America.  The older generation was still speaking German (they never spoke Russian) in the 1940s, while the next generation was bilingual.  Negatively influenced by their miseries and isolation in Russia, they saw themselves a downtrodden class cheated by townspeople, businessmen and railroads; they raised large families with harsh discipline; they wanted their children to be farmers so took them out of school around age 14; they treated their womenfolk as inferior, and were slow to diversify their farms. Many farmers specialized in sugar beets—still a major crop in the upper Great Plains. In World War I (1917–18) their patriotism was ambiguous; distrusted by their neighbors they rejected prohibition and Americanization efforts and supported radical far-left political movements such as the NPL ("Non-Partisan League").<ref>Elwyn B. Robinson, ''History of North Dakota'' (1966) pp. 285-87, 557; Gordon L. Iseminger, "Are We Germans, or Russians, or Americans? The McIntosh County German-Russians During World War I," ''North Dakota History'' 1992 59(2): 2-16,</ref>

==Religion==

==Religion==

Germans brought many different religions with them. The largest numbers were Catholic or Lutheran, although the Lutherans were themselves split several ways. The more conservative groups comprised the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] and the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. Other Lutherans formed a complex checkerboard of synods, most of which in 1988 merged, along with Scandinavian synods, into the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]]. Still other German Protestants were not Lutherans but were descendants of the united "Evangelical Church" in Germany. They created the Reformed denomination (especially strong in New York and Pennsylvania), and the Evangelical denomination (strongest in the Midwest). The Evangelical and Reformed groups are now part of the [[United Church of Christ]]. Many immigrants joined quite different churches from those in Germany, especially the [[Methodist]] church.  

Germans brought many different religions with them. The largest numbers were Catholic or Lutheran, although the Lutherans were themselves split several ways. The more conservative groups comprised the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] and the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. Other Lutherans formed a complex checkerboard of synods, most of which in 1988 merged, along with Scandinavian synods, into the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]]. Still other German Protestants were not Lutherans but were descendants of the united "Evangelical Church" in Germany. They created the Reformed denomination (especially strong in New York and Pennsylvania), and the Evangelical denomination (strongest in the Midwest). The Evangelical and Reformed groups are now part of the [[United Church of Christ]]. Many immigrants joined quite different churches from those in Germany, especially the [[Methodist]] church.  

Swiss-born Philip Schaff (1819-93) became a leading theologian and church historian in America. He returned often to Europe after his 1844 emigration to the U.S. Schaff's life was remarkably consistent and resilient; as he emigrated, he absorbed a moderate many American traits, adapting to the new world culture with ease, but maintained close intellectual and social ties with Germany. Schaff formulated a developmental, organic, providential view of history and a unique mediating evangelical theology that accommodated such figures as [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] and [[Schleiermacher]], tolerated liberal positions, yet remained nevertheless orthodox and fundamentalistic.<ref> Gary Keith Pranger, "Philip Schaff (1819-1893): Portrait of an Immigrant Theologian."  PhD dissertation U. of Illinois, Chicago 1987. 427 pp.  DAI 1988 48(9): 2437-A. DA8726098  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

Swiss-born Philip Schaff (1819–93) became a leading theologian and church historian in America. He returned often to Europe after his 1844 emigration to the U.S. Schaff's life was remarkably consistent and resilient; as he emigrated, he absorbed a moderate many American traits, adapting to the new world culture with ease, but maintained close intellectual and social ties with Germany. Schaff formulated a developmental, organic, providential view of history and a unique mediating evangelical theology that accommodated such figures as [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] and [[Schleiermacher]], tolerated liberal positions, yet remained nevertheless orthodox and fundamentalistic.<ref>Gary Keith Pranger, "Philip Schaff (1819-1893): Portrait of an Immigrant Theologian."  PhD dissertation U. of Illinois, Chicago 1987. 427 pp.  DAI 1988 48(9): 2437-A. DA8726098  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

   

   

[[File:Luther1850.jpg|thumb|320px| 1850 census map shows rural Lutheran population. Nearly all were German since few Scandinavians had arrived yet.]]

[[File:Luther1850.jpg|thumb|320px| 1850 census map shows rural Lutheran population. Nearly all were German since few Scandinavians had arrived yet.]]

At a more advanced level Germans have contributed to a numerous areas in American culture and technology. [[Baron von Steuben]], a former Prussian general staff captain, led the reorganization and training of the Continental Army during the [[American Revolution]]. [[Carl Schurz]] helped found the Republican party, while most Germans voted Democratic.   

At a more advanced level Germans have contributed to a numerous areas in American culture and technology. [[Baron von Steuben]], a former Prussian general staff captain, led the reorganization and training of the Continental Army during the [[American Revolution]]. [[Carl Schurz]] helped found the Republican party, while most Germans voted Democratic.   

After the Nazis came to power in 1933 thousands of scientists, artists, intellectuals and scholars fled to the U.S. The most famous was [[Albert Einstein]]. After World War II, [[Wernher von Braun]], and most of the leading engineers from the former German V-2 rocket project were brought to the U.S. They took the lead in designing military rockets, as well as of rockets for the [[NASA]] space program. Three highly influential intellectuals were diplomat [[Henry Kissinger]] and political philosophers Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss; Strauss was the founder of the [[Neoconservative]] movement.<ref> Peter Graf Kielmansegg, Horst Mewes, and Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt, ''German Émigrés and American Political Thought after World War II'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Hannah-Arendt-Leo-Strauss-Publications/dp/0521599369/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207854178&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]</ref>

After the Nazis came to power in 1933 thousands of scientists, artists, intellectuals and scholars fled to the U.S. The most famous was [[Albert Einstein]]. After World War II, [[Wernher von Braun]], and most of the leading engineers from the former German V-2 rocket project were brought to the U.S. They took the lead in designing military rockets, as well as of rockets for the [[NASA]] space program. Three highly influential intellectuals were diplomat [[Henry Kissinger]] and political philosophers Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss; Strauss was the founder of the [[Neoconservative]] movement.<ref>Peter Graf Kielmansegg, Horst Mewes, and Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt, ''German Émigrés and American Political Thought after World War II'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Hannah-Arendt-Leo-Strauss-Publications/dp/0521599369/ref=sr_1_27?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207854178&sr=1-27 excerpt and text search]</ref>

==World War I==

==World War I==

German Americans had strongly opposed American entry into the World War. With rare exceptions they did not favor Germany; rather they demanded neutrality. Their position was increasingly marginalized and ignored; a small minority of Congressmen (usually from heavily German districts) voted against the war in April 1917.   

German Americans had strongly opposed American entry into the World War. With rare exceptions they did not favor Germany; rather they demanded neutrality. Their position was increasingly marginalized and ignored; a small minority of Congressmen (usually from heavily German districts) voted against the war in April 1917.   

During the war Germania was watched closely for signs of disloyalty, which seldom were found. One German was killed in a tavern brawl on political grounds.  Nativism took on three different styles. Common acts, such as eliminating German language teaching in schools and encouraging the purchase of Liberty Loan Bonds, occurred across the U.S. Collective action, such as intimidation and violence, occurred mostly in smaller towns and rural areas where Germans compruise 5% to 40% of the population, and where local Anglo elites like newspapers editors and mayors demanded it. Symbolic action, such as changing street names (in Cincinnati, for example, German Street became English Street), was the norm in the larger cities, where city newspapers denounced violence. The German-American communities in cities such as Cincinnati were already in decline by 1918.<ref> Michael D. Thompson, "Liberty Loans, Loyalty Oaths, and the Street Name Swap: Anti-German Sentiment in Ohio, Spring 1918." ''Yearbook Of German-American Studies'' 1998 33: 139-156. 0741-2827 </ref>  

During the war Germania was watched closely for signs of disloyalty, which seldom were found. One German was killed in a tavern brawl on political grounds.  Nativism took on three different styles. Common acts, such as eliminating German language teaching in schools and encouraging the purchase of Liberty Loan Bonds, occurred across the U.S. Collective action, such as intimidation and violence, occurred mostly in smaller towns and rural areas where Germans compruise 5% to 40% of the population, and where local Anglo elites like newspapers editors and mayors demanded it. Symbolic action, such as changing street names (in Cincinnati, for example, German Street became English Street), was the norm in the larger cities, where city newspapers denounced violence. The German-American communities in cities such as Cincinnati were already in decline by 1918.<ref>Michael D. Thompson, "Liberty Loans, Loyalty Oaths, and the Street Name Swap: Anti-German Sentiment in Ohio, Spring 1918." ''Yearbook Of German-American Studies'' 1998 33: 139-156. 0741-2827</ref>  

During World War I, intense scrutiny of German Americans led to a debate about the definition of American culture. The central question was the status of "hyphenated Americans," a term which became nearly synonymous with German Americans and their perceived challenge to American integrity. Thus, the hyphen became a term not simply for discussing cultural minorities but also for discussing the dominant culture's relationship with Britain.<ref> Lisa Schreibersdorf, "Hyphens on the Home Front: Imagining American Culture through the German-American Hyphen, 1911-1919" (PhD 2005)</ref>

During World War I, intense scrutiny of German Americans led to a debate about the definition of American culture. The central question was the status of "hyphenated Americans," a term which became nearly synonymous with German Americans and their perceived challenge to American integrity. Thus, the hyphen became a term not simply for discussing cultural minorities but also for discussing the dominant culture's relationship with Britain.<ref>Lisa Schreibersdorf, "Hyphens on the Home Front: Imagining American Culture through the German-American Hyphen, 1911-1919" (PhD 2005)</ref>

In Indianapolis, Indiana, German Americans comprised over a fourth of the population and supported numerous clubs and associations to perpetuate German culture, By lobbying the school board they were able to establish an extensive program of German-language instruction in the city's primary and secondary public schools. The World War, however, generated intense patriotism and a concurrent intense hostility toward all things German. In October 1917, a new federal legislation required every German-language newspaper to file sworn translations of war-related articles with local postmasters; most smaller papers could not afford the cost and closed down.  In this atmosphere, the school board responded to assertions that teaching German was promoting the enemy's culture by banning German instruction in elementary schools in January 1918. Anti-German sentiment continued even after the war, and the Indiana legislature in 1919 banned all German-language instruction in all Indiana public and private schools. The Indianapolis story was typical of cities where the Germans did not have a majority of votes. Unlike Canada and Australia, which imprisoned German citizens, the German Americans were pressured into buying war bonds but were not imprisoned.<ref>Paul J. Ramsey, "The War Against German-American Culture: the Removal of German-language Instruction from the Indianapolis Schools, 1917-1919." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2002 98(4): 285-303. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Chris Richardson, "With Liberty and Justice for All? The Suppression of German-American Culture During World War I." ''Missouri Historical Review'' 1995 90(1): 79-89. Issn: 0026-6582 </ref>

In Indianapolis, Indiana, German Americans comprised over a fourth of the population and supported numerous clubs and associations to perpetuate German culture, By lobbying the school board they were able to establish an extensive program of German-language instruction in the city's primary and secondary public schools. The World War, however, generated intense patriotism and a concurrent intense hostility toward all things German. In October 1917, a new federal legislation required every German-language newspaper to file sworn translations of war-related articles with local postmasters; most smaller papers could not afford the cost and closed down.  In this atmosphere, the school board responded to assertions that teaching German was promoting the enemy's culture by banning German instruction in elementary schools in January 1918. Anti-German sentiment continued even after the war, and the Indiana legislature in 1919 banned all German-language instruction in all Indiana public and private schools. The Indianapolis story was typical of cities where the Germans did not have a majority of votes. Unlike Canada and Australia, which imprisoned German citizens, the German Americans were pressured into buying war bonds but were not imprisoned.<ref>Paul J. Ramsey, "The War Against German-American Culture: the Removal of German-language Instruction from the Indianapolis Schools, 1917-1919." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2002 98(4): 285-303. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]; Chris Richardson, "With Liberty and Justice for All? The Suppression of German-American Culture During World War I." ''Missouri Historical Review'' 1995 90(1): 79-89. Issn: 0026-6582</ref>

==Assimilation==

==Assimilation==

In 1910 German Americans lived in had created their own distinctive, vibrant, prosperous German-language communities, called "Germania".  The transition to an English language world was abrupt, forced by the World War. After 1917 the German language was seldom heard in public; most newspapers and magazines closed; churches and parochial schools switched to English.  Youth increasingly attended high schools, where they mingled, in English, and dated other ethnics. The Catholic high schools were deliberately structured to commingle ethnic groups so as to promote intermarriage.<ref> Edward R. Kantowicz, ''Corporation Sole: Cardinal Mundelein and Chicago Catholicism'' (1983) </ref>  German-speaking taverns, beer gardens  and saloons were all shut down by prohibition; those that reopened in 1933 spoke English. By the 1940s Germania had largely vanished outside remote areas and the Germans were thoroughly assimilated.<ref> Russell A. Kazal, "Revisiting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept." ''American Historical Review'' 100 (1995): 437-71. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2169006 in JSTOR]

In 1910 German Americans lived in had created their own distinctive, vibrant, prosperous German-language communities, called "Germania".  The transition to an English language world was abrupt, forced by the World War. After 1917 the German language was seldom heard in public; most newspapers and magazines closed; churches and parochial schools switched to English.  Youth increasingly attended high schools, where they mingled, in English, and dated other ethnics. The Catholic high schools were deliberately structured to commingle ethnic groups so as to promote intermarriage.<ref>Edward R. Kantowicz, ''Corporation Sole: Cardinal Mundelein and Chicago Catholicism'' (1983)</ref>  German-speaking taverns, beer gardens  and saloons were all shut down by prohibition; those that reopened in 1933 spoke English. By the 1940s Germania had largely vanished outside remote areas and the Germans were thoroughly assimilated.<ref>Russell A. Kazal, "Revisiting Assimilation: The Rise, Fall, and Reappraisal of a Concept." ''American Historical Review'' 100 (1995): 437-71. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2169006 in JSTOR]

</ref>  

</ref>  

Historians have tried to explain what happened. Kazal (2004) looks at Germans in Philadelphia, focusing on four ethnic subcultures: middle-class Vereinsdeutsche, working-class socialists, Lutherans, and Catholics. Each group followed a somewhat distinctive path toward assimilation. Lutherans, and the better situated Vereinsdeutsche with whom they often overlapped, after World War I abandoned the last major German characteristics and redefined themselves as old stock or as "Nordic" Americans, stressing their colonial roots in Pennsylvania and distancing themselves from more recent immigrants. On the other hand, working-class and Catholic Germans, groups that heavily overlapped, lived and worked with Irish and other European ethnics; they also gave up German characteristics but came to identify themselves as white ethnics, distancing themselves above all from African American recent arrivals in nearby neighborhoods. Well before World War I, women in particular were becoming more and more involved in a mass consumer culture that lured them out of their German-language neighborhood shops and into English language downtown department stores. The 1920s and 1930s brought English language popular culture via movies and radio that drowned out the few surviving German language venues.<ref> Russell A. Kazal, ''Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity'' (2004).</ref>

Historians have tried to explain what happened. Kazal (2004) looks at Germans in Philadelphia, focusing on four ethnic subcultures: middle-class Vereinsdeutsche, working-class socialists, Lutherans, and Catholics. Each group followed a somewhat distinctive path toward assimilation. Lutherans, and the better situated Vereinsdeutsche with whom they often overlapped, after World War I abandoned the last major German characteristics and redefined themselves as old stock or as "Nordic" Americans, stressing their colonial roots in Pennsylvania and distancing themselves from more recent immigrants. On the other hand, working-class and Catholic Germans, groups that heavily overlapped, lived and worked with Irish and other European ethnics; they also gave up German characteristics but came to identify themselves as white ethnics, distancing themselves above all from African American recent arrivals in nearby neighborhoods. Well before World War I, women in particular were becoming more and more involved in a mass consumer culture that lured them out of their German-language neighborhood shops and into English language downtown department stores. The 1920s and 1930s brought English language popular culture via movies and radio that drowned out the few surviving German language venues.<ref>Russell A. Kazal, ''Becoming Old Stock: The Paradox of German-American Identity'' (2004).</ref>

===Politics===

===Politics===

Historians have traced the highly complex voting patterns. Down until 1912, Catholic Germans were heavily Democratic, Protestants were split between the parties, and Jewish Germans voted Republican. Secular Germans split, with many workers voting Socialist.  In 1896 all the groups were alienated by [[William Jennings Bryan]] and moved toward the GOP.  They moved back in 1900.  The double blows of prohibition and anti-German agitation in 1917-20 alienated German Americans. In Wisconsin they moved o support [[Robert LaFollette]], who became their champion in the state and in 1924, nationally. In 1928 Germans voted along religious lines, with the Protestants for [[Herbert Hoover]] and the Catholics for [[Al Smith]].  Roosevelt won most of the German to the [[New Deal Coalition]] in 1932 and 1936.  

Historians have traced the highly complex voting patterns. Down until 1912, Catholic Germans were heavily Democratic, Protestants were split between the parties, and Jewish Germans voted Republican. Secular Germans split, with many workers voting Socialist.  In 1896 all the groups were alienated by [[William Jennings Bryan]] and moved toward the GOP.  They moved back in 1900.  The double blows of prohibition and anti-German agitation in 1917-20 alienated German Americans. In Wisconsin they moved o support [[Robert LaFollette]], who became their champion in the state and in 1924, nationally. In 1928 Germans voted along religious lines, with the Protestants for [[Herbert Hoover]] and the Catholics for [[Al Smith]].  Roosevelt won most of the German to the [[New Deal Coalition]] in 1932 and 1936.  

====World War II====

====World War II====

In 1940 large fraction of the German-American voters switched to [[Wendell Willkie]], who of course was of German descent himself. As Willkie crusaded against the anti-business excesses of the New Deal, the Democrats counter-crusaded, arguing that the danger of an internal fifth column was grave, and broadly suggesting that Willkie along with isolationists like Lindbergh was pro-Nazi. Although FDR promised there would be no repeat of the anti-Hun hysteria of the First War, distrust levels were high. Of course, everyone knew what was happening to the Japanese on the West Coast. During the war the federal [[Office of War Information]] sponsored numerous polls to monitor possible disloyalty or slackerism. NORC did a study in spring 1942, based on two nationwide surveys. The Germans were slightly more hostile to Britain than non-Germans, and exactly the same versus USSR. People with both parents born in Germany were slightly less hostile to Germany (only 11% wanted to "destroy Germany as a nation" vs 26% of the whole US; only 19% thought Germany has used poison gas in ww2, versus 33%). People with one parent born in Germany were almost exactly like the national average. None of the reports indicated any pro-Nazi sentiment whatever.<ref> "A Study of the Effect of German and Italian Origin on Certain War Attitudes" (NORC special Report #6, copy in NORC, University of  Chicago).</ref>   

In 1940 large fraction of the German-American voters switched to [[Wendell Willkie]], who of course was of German descent himself. As Willkie crusaded against the anti-business excesses of the New Deal, the Democrats counter-crusaded, arguing that the danger of an internal fifth column was grave, and broadly suggesting that Willkie along with isolationists like Lindbergh was pro-Nazi. Although FDR promised there would be no repeat of the anti-Hun hysteria of the First War, distrust levels were high. Of course, everyone knew what was happening to the Japanese on the West Coast. During the war the federal [[Office of War Information]] sponsored numerous polls to monitor possible disloyalty or slackerism. NORC did a study in spring 1942, based on two nationwide surveys. The Germans were slightly more hostile to Britain than non-Germans, and exactly the same versus USSR. People with both parents born in Germany were slightly less hostile to Germany (only 11% wanted to "destroy Germany as a nation" vs 26% of the whole US; only 19% thought Germany has used poison gas in ww2, versus 33%). People with one parent born in Germany were almost exactly like the national average. None of the reports indicated any pro-Nazi sentiment whatever.<ref>"A Study of the Effect of German and Italian Origin on Certain War Attitudes" (NORC special Report #6, copy in NORC, University of  Chicago).</ref>   

President Roosevelt made a deliberate effort to reassure Germans there would be no attacks on their culture as happened in World War I. Indeed he appointed two prominent Americans of German descent to top commands in the Army and Navy, General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in Europe and Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]] in the Pacific.  

President Roosevelt made a deliberate effort to reassure Germans there would be no attacks on their culture as happened in World War I. Indeed he appointed two prominent Americans of German descent to top commands in the Army and Navy, General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in Europe and Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]] in the Pacific.  

* Thernstrom, Stephan ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,'' (1980). [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Encyclopedia-American-Ethnic-Groups/dp/0674375122/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208115526&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

* Thernstrom, Stephan ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,'' (1980). [http://www.amazon.com/Harvard-Encyclopedia-American-Ethnic-Groups/dp/0674375122/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1208115526&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

** articles by Frederick C. Luebke, "Austrians," pp. 164-171;  Kathleen Neils Conzen, "Germans," pp. 405-425; La Vern J. Rippley, "Germans from Russia," pp. 425-430; Arthur A. Goren, "Jews," pp. 571-598, esp. 576-579; Don Yoder,  "Pennsylvania Germans," pp. 770-772; Leo Schelbert, "Swiss," pp. 981-987.  

** articles by Frederick C. Luebke, "Austrians," pp.&nbsp;164–171;  Kathleen Neils Conzen, "Germans," pp.&nbsp;405–425; La Vern J. Rippley, "Germans from Russia," pp.&nbsp;425–430; Arthur A. Goren, "Jews," pp.&nbsp;571–598, esp. 576-579; Don Yoder,  "Pennsylvania Germans," pp.&nbsp;770–772; Leo Schelbert, "Swiss," pp.&nbsp;981–987.  

* Barrick, Mac E., ed. ''German-American Folklore.''(1987). 264 pp.   

* Barrick, Mac E., ed. ''German-American Folklore.''(1987). 264 pp.   

* Baxter, Angus. ''In Search of Your German Roots. The Complete Guide to * Dobbert, Guido A. "German-Americans between New and Old Fatherland, 1870–1914". ''American Quarterly'' 19 (1967): 663-80. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2710894 in JSTOR]

* Baxter, Angus. ''In Search of Your German Roots. The Complete Guide to * Dobbert, Guido A. "German-Americans between New and Old Fatherland, 1870–1914". ''American Quarterly'' 19 (1967): 663-80. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2710894 in JSTOR]

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Thernstrom, Stephan ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,'' (1980).  

* Thernstrom, Stephan ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,'' (1980).  

** articles by Frederick C. Luebke, "Austrians," pp. 164-171;  Kathleen Neils Conzen, "Germans," pp. 405-425; La Vern J. Rippley, "Germans from Russia," pp. 425-430; Arthur A. Goren, "Jews," pp. 571-598, esp. 576-579; Don Yoder,  "Pennsylvania Germans," pp. 770-772; Leo Schelbert, "Swiss," pp. 981-987.  

** articles by Frederick C. Luebke, "Austrians," pp.&nbsp;164–171;  Kathleen Neils Conzen, "Germans," pp.&nbsp;405–425; La Vern J. Rippley, "Germans from Russia," pp.&nbsp;425–430; Arthur A. Goren, "Jews," pp.&nbsp;571–598, esp. 576-579; Don Yoder,  "Pennsylvania Germans," pp.&nbsp;770–772; Leo Schelbert, "Swiss," pp.&nbsp;981–987.  

* Adams, Willi Paul. ''The German-Americans. An Ethnic Experience.'' American Edition by LaVern J. Rippley and Eberhard Reichmann. Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ., 1993.

* Adams, Willi Paul. ''The German-Americans. An Ethnic Experience.'' American Edition by LaVern J. Rippley and Eberhard Reichmann. Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana Univ.-Purdue Univ., 1993.

*  Barclay, David E., and Elizabeth Glaser-Schmidt, eds. ''Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America Since 1776'' (1997).

*  Barclay, David E., and Elizabeth Glaser-Schmidt, eds. ''Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America Since 1776'' (1997).