Changes

"The year 2008 was characterized by three trends: a growing worldwide demand for greater personal and political freedom, governmental efforts to push back on those freedoms, and further confirmation that human rights flourish best in participatory democracies with vibrant civil societies." On the downside, "pushback against demands for greater personal and political freedom continued in many countries. A disturbing number of countries imposed burdensome, restrictive, or repressive laws and regulations against NGOs [non-governmental non-profit organizations] and the media, including the Internet. Many courageous human rights defenders who peacefully pressed for their own rights and those of their fellow countrymen and women were harassed, threatened, arrested and imprisoned, killed, or were subjected to violent extrajudicial means of reprisal."

"The year 2008 was characterized by three trends: a growing worldwide demand for greater personal and political freedom, governmental efforts to push back on those freedoms, and further confirmation that human rights flourish best in participatory democracies with vibrant civil societies." On the downside, "pushback against demands for greater personal and political freedom continued in many countries. A disturbing number of countries imposed burdensome, restrictive, or repressive laws and regulations against NGOs [non-governmental non-profit organizations] and the media, including the Internet. Many courageous human rights defenders who peacefully pressed for their own rights and those of their fellow countrymen and women were harassed, threatened, arrested and imprisoned, killed, or were subjected to violent extrajudicial means of reprisal."

At a structural level, "human rights abuses are less a matter of local tyrants and more a symptom of deeper dysfunctions within political systems. The most serious human rights abuses came in countries where unaccountable rulers wielded unchecked power or there was government failure or collapse, often exacerbated or caused by internal or external conflict."<ref> U.S. State Department [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/frontmatter/118984.htm 2008 Report]</ref>

At a structural level, "human rights abuses are less a matter of local tyrants and more a symptom of deeper dysfunctions within political systems. The most serious human rights abuses came in countries where unaccountable rulers wielded unchecked power or there was government failure or collapse, often exacerbated or caused by internal or external conflict."<ref>U.S. State Department [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/frontmatter/118984.htm 2008 Report]</ref>

==European history==

==European history==

The [[English Bill of Rights]] of 1689 was the world's first major declaration of rights, and it influenced the American, French and all other declarations.

The [[English Bill of Rights]] of 1689 was the world's first major declaration of rights, and it influenced the American, French and all other declarations.

The [[French Revolution]] adopted a [[ Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen‎]] in 1789.  

The [[French Revolution]] adopted a [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen‎]] in 1789.  

In the 19th century the concept spread rapidly through Europe and the colonial empires.  Prime Minister [[William Gladstone]], based British foreign policy in the late 19th century on opposition to violations of human rights, especially in the [[Ottoman Empire]].

In the 19th century the concept spread rapidly through Europe and the colonial empires.  Prime Minister [[William Gladstone]], based British foreign policy in the late 19th century on opposition to violations of human rights, especially in the [[Ottoman Empire]].

[[George Washington]] in his 1796 [[Farewell Address]] warned against foreign alliances and suggested the American mission to bring liberty to the world would be best served by avoiding wars, perfecting [[republicanism]] at home, and becoming a model for the world.  Indeed there were no foreign entanglements until 1917.

[[George Washington]] in his 1796 [[Farewell Address]] warned against foreign alliances and suggested the American mission to bring liberty to the world would be best served by avoiding wars, perfecting [[republicanism]] at home, and becoming a model for the world.  Indeed there were no foreign entanglements until 1917.

There was a strong sense--which continues to this day--that a major American mission is to spread democracy in the world, with the belief that democratic governments will avoid abuses of human rights.

There was a strong sense—which continues to this day—that a major American mission is to spread democracy in the world, with the belief that democratic governments will avoid abuses of human rights.

In the late 19th century Americans paid more and more attention to human rights abuses abroad. The [[Irish Catholics]] were especially angry at British refusal to allow for the independence of Ireland.  [[American Jews]] were alarmed at the murderous pogroms of Jews in Russia. All Americans were angered by the brutal Spanish suppression of freedom movements in Cuba; this anger directly caused the [[Spanish American War]] in 1898, which resulted in a small American empire. In each case Americans argued that the denial of democracy was the root cause of the human rights abuses.

In the late 19th century Americans paid more and more attention to human rights abuses abroad. The [[Irish Catholics]] were especially angry at British refusal to allow for the independence of Ireland.  [[American Jews]] were alarmed at the murderous pogroms of Jews in Russia. All Americans were angered by the brutal Spanish suppression of freedom movements in Cuba; this anger directly caused the [[Spanish American War]] in 1898, which resulted in a small American empire. In each case Americans argued that the denial of democracy was the root cause of the human rights abuses.

[[File:Belgium-ww1.JPG|thumb|210px|left|American disgust with German violations of human rights in occupied Belgium was a reason for entering World War I]]

[[File:Belgium-ww1.JPG|thumb|210px|left|American disgust with German violations of human rights in occupied Belgium was a reason for entering World War I]]

American were outraged by German brutality in Belgium in 1914, and by the German sinking of an unarmed passenger liner the ''"[[Lusitania]]"'' in 1915. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] forced the Germans to abandon attacks on merchant ships--and when Germany resumed in 1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war.  Americans were aghast at the Turkish slaughter of Armenians --the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915; for a while in 1919 there was talk of making Armenia an American protectorate, but nothing came of that.

American were outraged by German brutality in Belgium in 1914, and by the German sinking of an unarmed passenger liner the ''"[[Lusitania]]"'' in 1915. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] forced the Germans to abandon attacks on merchant ships—and when Germany resumed in 1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war.  Americans were aghast at the Turkish slaughter of Armenians—the [[Armenian Genocide]] of 1915; for a while in 1919 there was talk of making Armenia an American protectorate, but nothing came of that.

Meanwhile, Wilson was outraged at the extreme violations of human rights and democracy in Mexico, and intervened in the civil war raging there. The intervention ended in 1916 as the greater crisis of German threats was at hand.

Meanwhile, Wilson was outraged at the extreme violations of human rights and democracy in Mexico, and intervened in the civil war raging there. The intervention ended in 1916 as the greater crisis of German threats was at hand.

Promoting [[Wilsonianism]] as the expression of American idealism in world affairs, especially regarding democracy and human rights<ref> the Term "human rights" was not commonly used before 1945.</ref>, Wilson promulgated the idealistic principles of the [[Fourteen Points]], and at the [[Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919 he exerted enormous influence to lead the world to democracy and a [[League of Nations]] that would prevent wars and promote democracy.  He succeeded in part, and the LEague was created, but the U.S. Senate rejected the League and the U.S. never joined.

Promoting [[Wilsonianism]] as the expression of American idealism in world affairs, especially regarding democracy and human rights,<ref>the Term "human rights" was not commonly used before 1945.</ref> Wilson promulgated the idealistic principles of the [[Fourteen Points]], and at the [[Paris Peace Conference]] in 1919 he exerted enormous influence to lead the world to democracy and a [[League of Nations]] that would prevent wars and promote democracy.  He succeeded in part, and the LEague was created, but the U.S. Senate rejected the League and the U.S. never joined.

When Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 the U.S. refused to recognize the conquest.  American sympathy was strongly on the side of the Chinese, thanks to Christian missionaries and publicists such as [[Pearl Buck]] and [[Henry Luce]]'s [[Time]] magazine.  When Japan launched a full-scale war in China in 1937, the U.S. funded the Chinese resistance, supplies arms, and even sent in an air force--the "Flying Tigers" under General [[Claire Chennault]]--to fight the Japanese invasion.  President Roosevelt refused to compromise with the Japanese, and cut off their oil supplies in 1941 so they could no longer make war.  They responded with a desperate attack on the United States and the British Empire that ended in total disaster for Japan. At the war's end the U.S. took over Japan with the goal of systematically creating a democratic nation, and succeeded under the leadership of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].

When Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 the U.S. refused to recognize the conquest.  American sympathy was strongly on the side of the Chinese, thanks to Christian missionaries and publicists such as [[Pearl Buck]] and [[Henry Luce]]'s [[Time]] magazine.  When Japan launched a full-scale war in China in 1937, the U.S. funded the Chinese resistance, supplies arms, and even sent in an air force—the "Flying Tigers" under General [[Claire Chennault]]—to fight the Japanese invasion.  President Roosevelt refused to compromise with the Japanese, and cut off their oil supplies in 1941 so they could no longer make war.  They responded with a desperate attack on the United States and the British Empire that ended in total disaster for Japan. At the war's end the U.S. took over Japan with the goal of systematically creating a democratic nation, and succeeded under the leadership of General [[Douglas MacArthur]].

===Cold War===

===Cold War===

===Human rights in the Soviet Union===

===Human rights in the Soviet Union===

:Article 29 (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.  (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.  

:Article 29 (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.  (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.  

The first International Conference on Human Rights was held in Tehran, Iran, in 1968. A powerful bloc of Asian, African, and Arab states successfully asserted their control over the UN Human Rights Program. Their aggressive conference diplomacy was the culmination of a major transition in UN politics, with supposedly Western notions of individual freedom rejected in favor of an agenda that privileged economic modernization and the collective rights of peoples in Third World nations over those of individuals in those nations. Twenty years after the iconic image of [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] holding the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the residual elements of the program she presided over were repudiated in a storm of insistent demands from the new anti-colonial order.<ref> Burke (2008)</ref>  

The first International Conference on Human Rights was held in Tehran, Iran, in 1968. A powerful bloc of Asian, African, and Arab states successfully asserted their control over the UN Human Rights Program. Their aggressive conference diplomacy was the culmination of a major transition in UN politics, with supposedly Western notions of individual freedom rejected in favor of an agenda that privileged economic modernization and the collective rights of peoples in Third World nations over those of individuals in those nations. Twenty years after the iconic image of [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] holding the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the residual elements of the program she presided over were repudiated in a storm of insistent demands from the new anti-colonial order.<ref>Burke (2008)</ref>  

The UDHR implicitly asserted that human rights are superior to notions of state sovereignty and called for the imposing of moral standards across the globe. These notions of universal human rights derive in part from [[Wilsonianism]]--the efforts of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] after World War I.  They were reiterated in 2002 by President [[George W. Bush]] in his refusal to recognize Iraqi sovereignty and his efforts to impose a new democratic system of governance upon Iraq, and are a component of the [[Neoconservative]] effort to spread democracy in the Middle East, even in places like Iraq and Afghanistan.  The UN has supported this program, but the high cost has troubled Americans.

The UDHR implicitly asserted that human rights are superior to notions of state sovereignty and called for the imposing of moral standards across the globe. These notions of universal human rights derive in part from [[Wilsonianism]]—the efforts of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] after World War I.  They were reiterated in 2002 by President [[George W. Bush]] in his refusal to recognize Iraqi sovereignty and his efforts to impose a new democratic system of governance upon Iraq, and are a component of the [[Neoconservative]] effort to spread democracy in the Middle East, even in places like Iraq and Afghanistan.  The UN has supported this program, but the high cost has troubled Americans.

===India===

===India===

==State Department==

==State Department==

Because the promotion of human rights is an important national interest, the United States seeks to:<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/ State Department website]</ref>  

Because the promotion of human rights is an important national interest, the United States seeks to:<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/ State Department website]</ref>  

*Hold governments accountable to their obligations under universal human rights norms and international human rights instruments;

*Hold governments accountable to their obligations under universal human rights norms and international human rights instruments;

*Promote greater respect for human rights, including freedom from torture, freedom of expression, press freedom, women's rights, children's rights, and the protection of minorities;

*Promote greater respect for human rights, including freedom from torture, freedom of expression, press freedom, women's rights, children's rights, and the protection of minorities;

Since 1999 the U.S. State Department has issued Country Reports on the status of human rights around the globe.

Since 1999 the U.S. State Department has issued Country Reports on the status of human rights around the globe.

===China===

===China===

[[China]] is controlled by the Communist Party and its human rights record in 2008 remained poor and worsened in some areas. The government increased its severe cultural and religious repression of ethnic minorities in Tibetan areas and the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR), increased detention and harassment of dissidents and petitioners, and maintained tight controls on freedom of speech and the Internet. Abuses peaked around high-profile events, such as the Olympics and the unrest in Tibet. As in previous years, citizens did not have the right to change their government. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), both local and international, continued to face intense scrutiny and restrictions. Other serious human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture and coerced confessions of prisoners, and the use of forced labor, including prison labor. Workers cannot choose an independent union to represent them in the workplace, and the law does not protect workers' right to strike.<ref> See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm 2008 Report]</ref>

[[China]] is controlled by the Communist Party and its human rights record in 2008 remained poor and worsened in some areas. The government increased its severe cultural and religious repression of ethnic minorities in Tibetan areas and the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR), increased detention and harassment of dissidents and petitioners, and maintained tight controls on freedom of speech and the Internet. Abuses peaked around high-profile events, such as the Olympics and the unrest in Tibet. As in previous years, citizens did not have the right to change their government. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), both local and international, continued to face intense scrutiny and restrictions. Other serious human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture and coerced confessions of prisoners, and the use of forced labor, including prison labor. Workers cannot choose an independent union to represent them in the workplace, and the law does not protect workers' right to strike.<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm 2008 Report]</ref>

===Russia===

===Russia===

Russia is no longer Communist, but it is increasingly an authoritarian state where democracy is weak. It has an increasingly centralized political system, with power concentrated in the hands of [[Vladimir Putin]] and his choices for top offices. International observers concluded that the December 2007 State Duma election (for parliament) was not fair, and neither was the March 2, 2008, election for president.

Russia is no longer Communist, but it is increasingly an authoritarian state where democracy is weak. It has an increasingly centralized political system, with power concentrated in the hands of [[Vladimir Putin]] and his choices for top offices. International observers concluded that the December 2007 State Duma election (for parliament) was not fair, and neither was the March 2, 2008, election for president.

Human rights problems and abuses continued in 2008, though at a far lower level than the days of Communism (which ended in 1991). Putin's human rights record remained poor in the North Caucasus, where governments in Ingushetiya and Dagestan faced increased opposition from disaffected social groups and insurgencies, and the Chechen government forcibly reined in the Islamist insurgency that replaced the separatist insurgency as the main source of conflict. Russian security forces engaged in killings, torture, abuse, violence, and other brutal or humiliating treatment. In [[Chechnya]], Ingushetiya, and Dagestan, security forces were involved in unlawful killings and politically motivated kidnappings. Chechen President Kadyrov continued his repressive control as federal forces withdrew. Federal and local security forces in Chechnya targeted families of suspected insurgents with impunity, and Kadyrov's private militia allegedly engaged in kidnapping and torture.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008] </ref>

Human rights problems and abuses continued in 2008, though at a far lower level than the days of Communism (which ended in 1991). Putin's human rights record remained poor in the North Caucasus, where governments in Ingushetiya and Dagestan faced increased opposition from disaffected social groups and insurgencies, and the Chechen government forcibly reined in the Islamist insurgency that replaced the separatist insurgency as the main source of conflict. Russian security forces engaged in killings, torture, abuse, violence, and other brutal or humiliating treatment. In [[Chechnya]], Ingushetiya, and Dagestan, security forces were involved in unlawful killings and politically motivated kidnappings. Chechen President Kadyrov continued his repressive control as federal forces withdrew. Federal and local security forces in Chechnya targeted families of suspected insurgents with impunity, and Kadyrov's private militia allegedly engaged in kidnapping and torture.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008]</ref>

Pressure from Putin's regime weakened freedom of expression and media independence, particularly of the major television networks. Five journalists were assassinated in 2008. As some print and Internet media reflected a widening range of views, the government restricted media freedom through direct ownership of media outlets, pressuring the owners of major media outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassing and intimidating journalists into practicing self-censorship. Local governments limited freedom of assembly, and police sometimes used violence to prevent groups from engaging in peaceful protest. The government limited freedom of association. The government restricted religious groups in some regions, and there were incidents of societal discrimination, harassment, and violence against religious minorities, including anti-Semitism..<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008] </ref>

Pressure from Putin's regime weakened freedom of expression and media independence, particularly of the major television networks. Five journalists were assassinated in 2008. As some print and Internet media reflected a widening range of views, the government restricted media freedom through direct ownership of media outlets, pressuring the owners of major media outlets to abstain from critical coverage, and harassing and intimidating journalists into practicing self-censorship. Local governments limited freedom of assembly, and police sometimes used violence to prevent groups from engaging in peaceful protest. The government limited freedom of association. The government restricted religious groups in some regions, and there were incidents of societal discrimination, harassment, and violence against religious minorities, including anti-Semitism.<ref>see [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eur/119101.htm Country Report 2008]</ref>

==See also==

==See also==

* U.S. State Department. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/ Country Reports], annual since 1999

* U.S. State Department. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/ Country Reports], annual since 1999

* UN. ''Human Rights: A Compilation of International Instruments - Vol. 1 pt. 1'' (2002) by Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Geneva; [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=Office%20of%20the%20United%20Nations%20High%20Commissioner%20for%20Human%20Rights%20Geneva&dcontributors=Office%20of%20the%20United%20Nations%20High%20Commissioner%20for%20Human%20Rights%20Geneva online edition]

* UN. ''Human Rights: A Compilation of International Instruments - Vol. 1 pt. 1'' (2002) by Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Geneva; [http://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=Office%20of%20the%20United%20Nations%20High%20Commissioner%20for%20Human%20Rights%20Geneva&dcontributors=Office%20of%20the%20United%20Nations%20High%20Commissioner%20for%20Human%20Rights%20Geneva online edition]

====references====

====References====

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[[Category:Human Rights]]

[[Category:Human Rights]]

[[Category: Political Terms]]

[[Category:Political Terms]]