Changes

[[Puritans]] first regarded the Natives as potential friends and converts, and relations for some time were amicable. However, later developments would result in the Puritan seeing the Indians as hostile.  The murder of several colonists in late 1636 by the feared (by colonists and other Indians alike) Pequot tribe, resulted in increased alarm and hostilities. Torture of prisoners was a routine practice for most Indian tribes, and the Pequots in particular had  a reputation for cruelty and ruthlessness, and openly flayed the skin of one of their captors alive, and cut off his fingers and toes, while roasting another. Some Indians also engaged in cannibalism, eating certain body parts of their enemies. While the colonists sometimes engaged in torture in order to gain information, and the means of war on both sides could be brutal, the revelation of the type of cruelty these warring Indians engaged in resulted in a fear and a determination to subdue them.

[[Puritans]] first regarded the Natives as potential friends and converts, and relations for some time were amicable. However, later developments would result in the Puritan seeing the Indians as hostile.  The murder of several colonists in late 1636 by the feared (by colonists and other Indians alike) Pequot tribe, resulted in increased alarm and hostilities. Torture of prisoners was a routine practice for most Indian tribes, and the Pequots in particular had  a reputation for cruelty and ruthlessness, and openly flayed the skin of one of their captors alive, and cut off his fingers and toes, while roasting another. Some Indians also engaged in cannibalism, eating certain body parts of their enemies. While the colonists sometimes engaged in torture in order to gain information, and the means of war on both sides could be brutal, the revelation of the type of cruelty these warring Indians engaged in resulted in a fear and a determination to subdue them.

   

   

A particularly brutal war followed, that of King Philip’s War (1675-76), in which fifty-two of New England’s 90 towns were attacked, and seventeen were razed to the ground, and 25 were pillaged. Although Boston's colonial council in Boston had declared "that none be Killed or Wounded that are Willing to surrender themselves into Custody", this would not be English "civilized warfare", and Indian deaths were even higher, with many captured Natives being executed or sold into slavery to foreign countries. Soon, the colonists would become more like their enemies in brutality, albeit somewhat tempered in places by religious restraints.

A particularly brutal war followed, that of King Philip’s War (1675–76), in which fifty-two of New England’s 90 towns were attacked, and seventeen were razed to the ground, and 25 were pillaged. Although Boston's colonial council in Boston had declared "that none be Killed or Wounded that are Willing to surrender themselves into Custody", this would not be English "civilized warfare", and Indian deaths were even higher, with many captured Natives being executed or sold into slavery to foreign countries. Soon, the colonists would become more like their enemies in brutality, albeit somewhat tempered in places by religious restraints.

Enlistment and incitement of Indians by the French, and expansion westward by European settlers resulted in escalating hostilities, and substantial deaths on both sides. The premise that force was the answer was challenged by a number of federal commissioners, but the Europeans overall had  the upper hand, and both sides engaging in indiscriminate killing.  True and perhaps exaggerated stories of savage killings by Indians spread, and with it increasing animosity toward them outside the East, and desire to exterminate them.  The Reverend William Crawford reported in September 1864 that the attitude of the white population of Colorado was, “There is but one sentiment in regard to the final disposition which shall be made of the Indians: ‘Let them be exterminated—men, women, and children together.’” To which he added, "I do not myself share in such views." Violent conflicts due to the [[Gold Rush]] saw great decimation of the Indian population of California, mainly by disease but also by killing, with settlers sometimes killing any who were in their way, and retaliating to Indian savagery with greater intensity.<ref>[http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html Guenter Lewy, ''Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?'']</ref>  

Enlistment and incitement of Indians by the French, and expansion westward by European settlers resulted in escalating hostilities, and substantial deaths on both sides. The premise that force was the answer was challenged by a number of federal commissioners, but the Europeans overall had  the upper hand, and both sides engaging in indiscriminate killing.  True and perhaps exaggerated stories of savage killings by Indians spread, and with it increasing animosity toward them outside the East, and desire to exterminate them.  The Reverend William Crawford reported in September 1864 that the attitude of the white population of Colorado was, “There is but one sentiment in regard to the final disposition which shall be made of the Indians: ‘Let them be exterminated—men, women, and children together.’” To which he added, "I do not myself share in such views." Violent conflicts due to the [[Gold Rush]] saw great decimation of the Indian population of California, mainly by disease but also by killing, with settlers sometimes killing any who were in their way, and retaliating to Indian savagery with greater intensity.<ref>[http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html Guenter Lewy, ''Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?'']</ref>  

While the effects of wars by European against Indians are not to be minimized, trade with Europeans could reduce  traditional forms of intergroup conflict during the early contact period. However, as unjust warring is the usually the result of lust (Ja, 4:2)  tribal warfare also could shift from "raiding each other based on revenge, and a desire to acquire prestige goods and status, to an extremely violent pattern of engagements arising from unequal access to foreign trade goods and the quest for war booty, revenge killings, status intensification, and slaves", as it did among Northwest Coast Indians.<ref>[http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/catalogs/dlg_show_excerpt.php?id=1872&title=North+American+Indigenous+Warfare+and+Ritual+Violence&subtitle=&author=Edited+by+Richard+J.+Chacon%3B+Rub%E9n+G.+Mendoza ''North American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence'', summary]</ref>

While the effects of wars by European against Indians are not to be minimized, trade with Europeans could reduce  traditional forms of intergroup conflict during the early contact period. However, as unjust warring is the usually the result of lust (Ja, 4:2)  tribal warfare also could shift from "raiding each other based on revenge, and a desire to acquire prestige goods and status, to an extremely violent pattern of engagements arising from unequal access to foreign trade goods and the quest for war booty, revenge killings, status intensification, and slaves", as it did among Northwest Coast Indians.<ref>[http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/catalogs/dlg_show_excerpt.php?id=1872&title=North+American+Indigenous+Warfare+and+Ritual+Violence&subtitle=&author=Edited+by+Richard+J.+Chacon%3B+Rub%E9n+G.+Mendoza ''North American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence'', summary]</ref>

==Praying Indians==  

==Praying Indians==

===New England praying Indians===

===New England praying Indians===

Historian and author Robert D. Hall stated that “Eliot was a genius." "He was a missionary, a teacher, a linguist. He founded the Roxbury Latin School. He learned the Algonquin tongue and translated it into English.’’

Historian and author Robert D. Hall stated that “Eliot was a genius." "He was a missionary, a teacher, a linguist. He founded the Roxbury Latin School. He learned the Algonquin tongue and translated it into English.’’

   

   

Between 1646 to 1674, Eliot saw some 1100 Massachusetts natives convert to the Christian religion, and played a central role in establishing fourteen “Praying Indian” communities in the eastern part of Massachusetts.<ref>"Talk on first Christian Indians," The Boston Globe Newspaper, May 13, 2010</ref> <ref>http://www.braintreehistorical.org/NewsLetters/March2007.pdf</ref>

Between 1646 to 1674, Eliot saw some 1100 Massachusetts natives convert to the Christian religion, and played a central role in establishing fourteen “Praying Indian” communities in the eastern part of Massachusetts.<ref>"Talk on first Christian Indians," The Boston Globe Newspaper, May 13, 2010</ref><ref>http://www.braintreehistorical.org/NewsLetters/March2007.pdf</ref>

The praying town of Natick is considered the oldest, being founded in 1651, and by 1674  six more principal praying towns existed: Hassanamesit, Magunkaquog, Nashobah, Okommakamesit, Punkapog, and Wamesit. However,  the praying Indians were practically destroyed by the other Native Americans  in [[King Philip's War]]  circa 1675 and by the English, both of whom viewed them as traitors. From a estimated population of 1,100 in 1674, they were reduced to only 300 by 1680. <ref>"praying Indians," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com;  http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/praying_Indians.aspx</ref>  

The praying town of Natick is considered the oldest, being founded in 1651, and by 1674  six more principal praying towns existed: Hassanamesit, Magunkaquog, Nashobah, Okommakamesit, Punkapog, and Wamesit. However,  the praying Indians were practically destroyed by the other Native Americans  in [[King Philip's War]]  circa 1675 and by the English, both of whom viewed them as traitors. From a estimated population of 1,100 in 1674, they were reduced to only 300 by 1680.<ref>"praying Indians," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com;  http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/praying_Indians.aspx</ref>  

<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2008</ref>   

<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2008</ref>   

The Indians, thus settled, were instructed in husbandry, and were excited to a prudent as well as industrious management of their affairs. Some of them were taught such trades as were most necessary for them, so that they completely built a house for public worship, 50 feet in length and 25 feet in breadth.

The Indians, thus settled, were instructed in husbandry, and were excited to a prudent as well as industrious management of their affairs. Some of them were taught such trades as were most necessary for them, so that they completely built a house for public worship, 50 feet in length and 25 feet in breadth.

However, in less than five years after its foundation, Eliot was obliged to migrate the entire population of this  North American Christian Indian community to a 3,000-acre site some fifteen miles to the southwest, in the present town of Natick.<ref>[http://www.braintreehistorical.org/NewsLetters/March2007.pdf The Lantern] Braintree Historical Society, VOL March 2007 XXV No.3</ref><ref>http://hassanamesit.org/images/documents/History%20Report%20-%20Final%2012012006.pdf</ref>.<ref>http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm036.html</ref><ref>http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm004.html</ref><ref>http://www.tyndalesploughboy.org/eliot-bible/</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=FZ8DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18&dq=rev+john+elliot&output=text Memoirs of the life and character of Rev. John Eliot], pp. 24-43</ref>  

However, in less than five years after its foundation, Eliot was obliged to migrate the entire population of this  North American Christian Indian community to a 3,000-acre site some fifteen miles to the southwest, in the present town of Natick.<ref>[http://www.braintreehistorical.org/NewsLetters/March2007.pdf The Lantern] Braintree Historical Society, VOL March 2007 XXV No.3</ref><ref>http://hassanamesit.org/images/documents/History%20Report%20-%20Final%2012012006.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm036.html</ref><ref>http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm004.html</ref><ref>http://www.tyndalesploughboy.org/eliot-bible/</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=FZ8DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18&dq=rev+john+elliot&output=text Memoirs of the life and character of Rev. John Eliot], pp. 24-43</ref>  

Twenty years after the arrival of Eliot, the Massachusetts General Court established Natick (meaning  “Place of Searching”) as the  praying Indian village/town in 1651, helping them to  be able to to worship in peace. This is considered by some to be the first '''formally''' "Christian town" in America, and consisted at first of 51 inhabitants in seven villages, with seven more being later established.  The beloved (by the Indians at least) Eliot became known as the “Apostle to the Indians.”  

Twenty years after the arrival of Eliot, the Massachusetts General Court established Natick (meaning  “Place of Searching”) as the  praying Indian village/town in 1651, helping them to  be able to to worship in peace. This is considered by some to be the first '''formally''' "Christian town" in America, and consisted at first of 51 inhabitants in seven villages, with seven more being later established.  The beloved (by the Indians at least) Eliot became known as the “Apostle to the Indians.”  

Other praying Indian Towns also were established, including Ponkapoag (Stoughton, MA) and Nashoba (Littleton, MA), but also covering portions of Dover, Wellesley, and Needham in addition to Dedham. By 1675, it is estimated that 20 percent of the Native Indians in New England lived in praying Towns.

Other praying Indian Towns also were established, including Ponkapoag (Stoughton, MA) and Nashoba (Littleton, MA), but also covering portions of Dover, Wellesley, and Needham in addition to Dedham. By 1675, it is estimated that 20 percent of the Native Indians in New England lived in praying Towns.

====Removal and decimation====  

====Removal and decimation====

The winter of 1675 began an intense trial in the wilderness  for the Indians. The colonists, being largely distrustful of the these Praying Indians of a different language and culture, and  being fearful that they might join "[[King Phillip]]" (Metacom), the mighty Wampanoag Indian Chief in an ongoing war, they forced the removal of the approximately 200 Natick Praying Indians to Deer Island at midnight on October 30. Despite only being given half an hour’s notice, the Indians made no opposition, and were left unprotected on the frigid Island, being forbidden to light fires, hunt game, build shelters, and so suffered from hunger and little clothing, though they may have been able to dig clams and fish. A month later this crime was multiplied as the praying Indian Villages of Ponkapoag and Nashoba were sent to suffer interment on the Island, which lasted until into 1676.  An attempt by the now elderly Eliot going by boat to bring supplies to the Natives is said to have ended when the boat was capsized by some angry colonists. Despite that winter being one of the coldest winters on record,  Eliot recorded that no word of complaint ever issued from their lips. Most of the 500 Indians died of cold and starvation, while some of the Praying Indians worked as spies for the colonists and fought for them.

The winter of 1675 began an intense trial in the wilderness  for the Indians. The colonists, being largely distrustful of the these Praying Indians of a different language and culture, and  being fearful that they might join "[[King Phillip]]" (Metacom), the mighty Wampanoag Indian Chief in an ongoing war, they forced the removal of the approximately 200 Natick Praying Indians to Deer Island at midnight on October 30. Despite only being given half an hour’s notice, the Indians made no opposition, and were left unprotected on the frigid Island, being forbidden to light fires, hunt game, build shelters, and so suffered from hunger and little clothing, though they may have been able to dig clams and fish. A month later this crime was multiplied as the praying Indian Villages of Ponkapoag and Nashoba were sent to suffer interment on the Island, which lasted until into 1676.  An attempt by the now elderly Eliot going by boat to bring supplies to the Natives is said to have ended when the boat was capsized by some angry colonists. Despite that winter being one of the coldest winters on record,  Eliot recorded that no word of complaint ever issued from their lips. Most of the 500 Indians died of cold and starvation, while some of the Praying Indians worked as spies for the colonists and fought for them.

After the death of King Phillip Pastor Eliot and Daniel Gookin secured the Indians release, personally removing the Indians from the Island and bearing the financial cost to do so. They returned to face the loss of homes and property, and means of survival. A remnant lived on however, as a testimony of enduring faith.   

After the death of King Phillip Pastor Eliot and Daniel Gookin secured the Indians release, personally removing the Indians from the Island and bearing the financial cost to do so. They returned to face the loss of homes and property, and means of survival. A remnant lived on however, as a testimony of enduring faith.   

Deer Island today exists mainly as a sewage treatment plant, but with a park with an open walk which remembers the plight of the Natives that were once imprisoned there.<ref>[http://natickprayingindians.org/history.html Praying Indians of Natick and Ponkapoag]</ref> <ref>[http://www.helloboston.com/BookFiles/Pg_303-382.pdf  The Memorial History of Boston 1630-1880 Vol. I, p. 321]</ref><ref>Blackwell Reference Online; A Dictionary of American Reference; Purvis, Thomas L. 1997</ref><ref>http://www.tyndalesploughboy.org/eliot-bible/</ref>

Deer Island today exists mainly as a sewage treatment plant, but with a park with an open walk which remembers the plight of the Natives that were once imprisoned there.<ref>[http://natickprayingindians.org/history.html Praying Indians of Natick and Ponkapoag]</ref><ref>[http://www.helloboston.com/BookFiles/Pg_303-382.pdf  The Memorial History of Boston 1630-1880 Vol. I, p. 321]</ref><ref>Blackwell Reference Online; A Dictionary of American Reference; Purvis, Thomas L. 1997</ref><ref>http://www.tyndalesploughboy.org/eliot-bible/</ref>

===Praying Indians in Delaware===

===Praying Indians in Delaware===

The other abandoned Moravian towns were then burned as well. Two Indian boys, one of whom had been scalped, survived to tell of the massacre.  The bordermen who had committed the mass murder were hailed as heroes by most of their fellow frontiersmen, but were deemed as criminals by most of the rest of America.}}

The other abandoned Moravian towns were then burned as well. Two Indian boys, one of whom had been scalped, survived to tell of the massacre.  The bordermen who had committed the mass murder were hailed as heroes by most of their fellow frontiersmen, but were deemed as criminals by most of the rest of America.}}

90-96 Delaware (Lenni Lenape), Mohican, and other Indians who had been converted by Moravian missionaries to Christianity died, and as a result of the the massacre, Indian distrust of Americans and resistance to them much increased. <ref>[http://gnadenhutten.tripod.com Gnadenhutten Massacre]</ref><ref>[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~gwilli824/moravian.html Information on the Militia Criminals]</ref>

90-96 Delaware (Lenni Lenape), Mohican, and other Indians who had been converted by Moravian missionaries to Christianity died, and as a result of the the massacre, Indian distrust of Americans and resistance to them much increased.<ref>[http://gnadenhutten.tripod.com Gnadenhutten Massacre]</ref><ref>[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~gwilli824/moravian.html Information on the Militia Criminals]</ref>

==Negative effects of resettlement==

==Negative effects of resettlement==

 

Later, after the American Indian Peoples were rounded up onto reservations, the sudden dependence on the government created situations that are often associated with welfare situations.  Both because of biology (Indian people like many Asian people do not break down alcohol the same way Europeans do) and the lack of being a "bread winner" that men throughout history find critical to identity as head of the family, alcohol and drug abuse became very common both among reservation and urban Indians, as is the case today.<ref>12% of Indian deaths are related to alcohol, several times the national average. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Aug28/0,4670,IndianDeathsAlcohol,00.html</ref> A strong rise in child and spousal abuse occurred after the "welfare state" like existence for the men came into being.  Without the need to provide for the family, depression sets in, and is a common problem on the reservation.

Later, after the American Indian Peoples were rounded up onto reservations, the sudden dependence on the government created situations that are often associated with welfare situations.  Both because of biology (Indian people like many Asian people do not break down alcohol the same way Europeans do) and the lack of being a "bread winner" that men throughout history find critical to identity as head of the family, alcohol and drug abuse became very common both among reservation and urban Indians, as is the case today.<ref>12% of Indian deaths are related to alcohol, several times the national average. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Aug28/0,4670,IndianDeathsAlcohol,00.html</ref> A strong rise in child and spousal abuse occurred after the "welfare state" like existence for the men came into being.  Without the need to provide for the family, depression sets in, and is a common problem on the reservation.

Indian People have many problems to solve, but new social services, generally run and funded by the tribes themselves, along with new recognition of Indian People's contributions to society are ways that tribes and individuals are trying to change things.

Indian People have many problems to solve, but new social services, generally run and funded by the tribes themselves, along with new recognition of Indian People's contributions to society are ways that tribes and individuals are trying to change things.

Today, many Indian tribes are seeing a resurgence, such as in [[California]], with outreach programs working to reunite urban Indians with both their reservation families and other urban tribal members; programs set up both by the tribe themselves (often with assistance of state and local governments) to teach their languages and open schools that focus on a tribal way of life.  Most tribes have been granted some limited power in self governance as well, significantly in the area of the sentencing of tribal members in various criminal and civil issues.  Special tax breaks have helped Indian people and Indian reservations become more self-sufficient.  Some states have even revisited the definition of 'reservation' based on the Dawes Act which originally provided for substantially more "reservation" land if the Indian people would buy it as individual land, and either market it or farm it (the intent was to help Indian Peoples integrate into the American social and economic systems).  So for instance in [[Wisconsin]], Indian reservation land can include buying real estate in [[Milwaukee]] - far from the physical location of the tribes themselves. Laws have been enacted in some States that give Indians special privileges in allowing [[gambling]] in the form of slot machines and other gaming, resulting in economic gains but with increased addictive behavior, and at the expense of spiritual and social values. <ref>Don A. Cozzetto, "The Economic and Social Implications of Indian Gaming: The Case of Minnesota," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (Winter 1995), p. 126</ref> <ref>Judy Zelio, "The Fat New Buffalo," State Legislatures (June 1994): p. 38-41</ref> <ref> Marci McDonald, "Tribal Gamblers," Maclean's (May 30, 1994): p. 32-33</ref> <ref>Magnuson, "Casino Wars: Ethics and Economics in Indian Country," Christian Century (February 16, 1994): pp. 169-171</ref>   

Today, many Indian tribes are seeing a resurgence, such as in [[California]], with outreach programs working to reunite urban Indians with both their reservation families and other urban tribal members; programs set up both by the tribe themselves (often with assistance of state and local governments) to teach their languages and open schools that focus on a tribal way of life.  Most tribes have been granted some limited power in self governance as well, significantly in the area of the sentencing of tribal members in various criminal and civil issues.  Special tax breaks have helped Indian people and Indian reservations become more self-sufficient.  Some states have even revisited the definition of 'reservation' based on the Dawes Act which originally provided for substantially more "reservation" land if the Indian people would buy it as individual land, and either market it or farm it (the intent was to help Indian Peoples integrate into the American social and economic systems).  So for instance in [[Wisconsin]], Indian reservation land can include buying real estate in [[Milwaukee]] - far from the physical location of the tribes themselves. Laws have been enacted in some States that give Indians special privileges in allowing [[gambling]] in the form of slot machines and other gaming, resulting in economic gains but with increased addictive behavior, and at the expense of spiritual and social values.<ref>Don A. Cozzetto, "The Economic and Social Implications of Indian Gaming: The Case of Minnesota," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (Winter 1995), p. 126</ref><ref>Judy Zelio, "The Fat New Buffalo," State Legislatures (June 1994): p. 38-41</ref><ref>Marci McDonald, "Tribal Gamblers," Maclean's (May 30, 1994): p. 32-33</ref><ref>Magnuson, "Casino Wars: Ethics and Economics in Indian Country," Christian Century (February 16, 1994): pp. 169-171</ref>   

Self governance is a huge issue, with each of the over 300 recognized tribes having different rules and regulations placed on them by the Government.  As with every other political system in the world, Indian People disagree with each other about many issues from how to spend government money to how "traditional" to become, to what religion should be the focal point of the tribe.   

Self governance is a huge issue, with each of the over 300 recognized tribes having different rules and regulations placed on them by the Government.  As with every other political system in the world, Indian People disagree with each other about many issues from how to spend government money to how "traditional" to become, to what religion should be the focal point of the tribe.   

*[http://books.google.com/books?id=FZ8DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=rev+john+elliot&output=text#PA13 Martin Moore, ''Memoirs of the life and character of Rev. John Eliot'']   

*[http://books.google.com/books?id=FZ8DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=rev+john+elliot&output=text#PA13 Martin Moore, ''Memoirs of the life and character of Rev. John Eliot'']   

   

   

[[category:Native Americans]]

[[Category:Native Americans]]