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One danger that feudalism avoided was constant warfare between nobles. They realized they needed a king to prevent this and so in 987 the nobles selected Hugh Capet as their first king. Previously his family had been counts of Anjou and Blois; his supporters included the duke of Normandy. The kings owned some royal lands directly, especially in the area around Paris called the Ile de France. The king had to negotiate with the powerful dukes, especially those of Normandy, Aquitaine, Burgundy and Flanders. The English Norman kings extended their French holdings beyond Normandy when Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the annulment of her marriage to the King Louis VII, in 1152 married the future King Henry II of England.
One danger that feudalism avoided was constant warfare between nobles. They realized they needed a king to prevent this and so in 987 the nobles selected Hugh Capet as their first king. Previously his family had been counts of Anjou and Blois; his supporters included the duke of Normandy. The kings owned some royal lands directly, especially in the area around Paris called the Ile de France. The king had to negotiate with the powerful dukes, especially those of Normandy, Aquitaine, Burgundy and Flanders. The English Norman kings extended their French holdings beyond Normandy when Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the annulment of her marriage to the King Louis VII, in 1152 married the future King Henry II of England.
The middle class was small but controlled the flow of gold, and the kings formed alliances with them. Nevertheless there was a major cultural gap between the business orientation of the middle class and the nobles’ roles of warrior, landowner, and bishop. The king gained support from bishops and abbots with his patronage for cathedrals, schools, and crusades.
The middle class was small but controlled the flow of gold, and the kings formed alliances with them. Nevertheless, there was a major cultural gap between the business orientation of the middle class and the nobles’ roles of warrior, landowner, and bishop. The king gained support from bishops and abbots with his patronage for cathedrals, schools, and crusades.
France supported higher education, with the foundation of the world’s first university at Paris. In monasteries and universities, monks and scholars studied, discussed, and debated theological tracts, Greek and Latin works. From the courtiers there emerged a French language literature.
France supported higher education, with the foundation of the world’s first university at Paris. In monasteries and universities, monks and scholars studied, discussed, and debated theological tracts, Greek and Latin works. From the courtiers there emerged a French language literature.
France emerged from [[World War II]] to face a series of new problems. After a short period of provisional government initially led by Gen. [[Charles de Gaulle]], the Fourth Republic was set up by a new constitution and established as a parliamentary form of government controlled by a series of coalitions. French military involvement in both [[Vietnam]] and [[Algeria]] combined with the mixed nature of the coalitions and a consequent lack of agreement caused successive cabinet crises and changes of government.
France emerged from [[World War II]] to face a series of new problems. After a short period of provisional government initially led by Gen. [[Charles de Gaulle]], the Fourth Republic was set up by a new constitution and established as a parliamentary form of government controlled by a series of coalitions. French military involvement in both [[Vietnam]] and [[Algeria]] combined with the mixed nature of the coalitions and a consequent lack of agreement caused successive cabinet crises and changes of government.
Finally, on May 13, 1958, the government structure collapsed as a result of the negative public opinion pressures generated by four years of war in Algeria. A threatened coup led the Parliament to call on General de Gaulle to head the government and prevent civil war. Marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic, he became prime minister in June 1958 and was elected president in December of that year. Also resulting from the Algerian conflict, were decades of increased immigration from the Maghreb states, which functioned to change the composition of French society. The French had believed that the immigrants would assimilate into French society, but over time the opposite occurred as the groups came to think of themselves not so much by their separate African nation ancestory but instead by their Islamic background. Enclaves of 'nations within a nation' would eventually form where all signs would be in Arabic. This would cause further trouble in modern times.
Finally, on May 13, 1958, the government structure collapsed as a result of the negative public opinion pressures generated by four years of war in Algeria. A threatened coup led the Parliament to call on General de Gaulle to head the government and prevent civil war. Marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic, he became prime minister in June 1958 and was elected president in December of that year. Also resulting from the Algerian conflict, were decades of increased immigration from the Maghreb states, which functioned to change the composition of French society. The French had believed that the immigrants would assimilate into French society, but over time the opposite occurred as the groups came to think of themselves not so much by their separate African nation ancestry but instead by their Islamic background. Enclaves of 'nations within a nation' would eventually form where all signs would be in Arabic. This would cause further trouble in modern times.
Seven years later, for the first time in the 20th Century, the people of France went to the polls to elect a president by direct ballot. De Gaulle won re-election with a 55% share of the vote, defeating François Mitterrand. In April 1969, President de Gaulle's government conducted a national referendum on the creation of 21 regions with limited political powers. The government's proposals were defeated, and de Gaulle subsequently resigned. Succeeding him as president of France have been Gaullist [[Georges Pompidou]] (1969–74), Independent Republican [[Valery Giscard d'Estaing]] (1974–81), Socialist [[François Mitterrand]] (1981–95), neo-Gaullist [[Jacques Chirac]] (1995-2007), and [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] (2007–present).
Seven years later, for the first time in the 20th Century, the people of France went to the polls to elect a president by direct ballot. De Gaulle won re-election with a 55% share of the vote, defeating François Mitterrand. In April 1969, President de Gaulle's government conducted a national referendum on the creation of 21 regions with limited political powers. The government's proposals were defeated, and de Gaulle subsequently resigned. Succeeding him as president of France have been Gaullist [[Georges Pompidou]] (1969–74), Independent Republican [[Valery Giscard d'Estaing]] (1974–81), Socialist [[François Mitterrand]] (1981–95), neo-Gaullist [[Jacques Chirac]] (1995-2007), and [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] (2007–present).
* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]
* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]
* Jones, Colin. ''The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Nation-Napoleon-Penguin-History/dp/0140130934/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705067&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Jones, Colin. ''The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Nation-Napoleon-Penguin-History/dp/0140130934/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705067&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the [[Annales School]] [http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School [http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]
* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (2 vol 1984), short essays by scholars
* Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799'' (2 vol 1984), short essays by scholars
* Schama, Simon. ''Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution'' (1989), highly readable narrative by scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Citizens-Simon-Schama/dp/0141017279/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705186&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Schama, Simon. ''Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution'' (1989), highly readable narrative by scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Citizens-Simon-Schama/dp/0141017279/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197705186&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003, 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
* Sutherland, D.M.G. ''France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution'' (2nd ed. 2003), 430pp [http://www.amazon.com/French-Revolution-Empire-Quest-Civic/dp/0631233636/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189597597&sr=1-1 excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
====Napoleon====
====Napoleon====
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
* Williams, Philip M. and Martin Harrison. ''De Gaulle's Republic'' (1965) [http://www.questia.com/read/54328775 online edition]
==Historiography==
==Historiography==
see also [[Annales School]]
see also Annales School
* Offen, Karen. "French Women's History: Retrospect (1789–1940) and Prospect," ''French Historical Studies'' 26, no. 4 (2003): 757+
* Offen, Karen. "French Women's History: Retrospect (1789–1940) and Prospect," ''French Historical Studies'' 26, no. 4 (2003): 757+
* Thébaud, Françoise. "Writing Women's and Gender History in France: A National Narrative?" ''Journal of Women's History'' - Volume 19, Number 1, 2007, pp. 167–172 in [[Project Muse]]
* Thébaud, Françoise. "Writing Women's and Gender History in France: A National Narrative?" ''Journal of Women's History'' - Volume 19, Number 1, 2007, pp. 167–172 in [[Project Muse]]