Changes

===The Craigavon era (1921-1940)===

===The Craigavon era (1921-1940)===

While [[Edward Carson]] had led the Unionist movement throughout Ireland, his right hand man, Sir [[James Craig]] was more than able to take his place as leader of the Unionist movement in Northern Ireland. Craig acted as a broker between the Ulster Unionists and London in working out key details of the Government of Ireland Act of 1920. Craig helped reorganize the UVF as a separate unit to defend Northern Ireland against the IRA; this this led to the formation of the Ulster Special Constabulary in November 1920. In 1921 there were pitched battles with IRA insurgents supported by Collins in Dublin. In January 1921 the new government of Northern Ireland began operations with Craig as Prime Minister.<ref>It moved to the Stormont estate in 1932, and was often called the Stormont government.</ref> Craig was helped by a weak Nationalist opposition - the Republicans and their more moderate Nationalist colleagues had been divided on how to deal with the new entity, as they wanted reunion with the South and mot union with the UK. By contrast the Unionists were united and won repeated large majorities in the parliament (winning forty, compared to twelve seats combined for Nationalist and Republican candidates. Craig saw his priorities as establishing the new state on firm foundations; defending it against its enemies, within (who were loyal to Dublin) and without (the Irish Free State); preventing his over-zealous supporters from taking the law into their own hands (which might destabilize the state and bring intervention from London); and keeping a watchful eye on London, where Lloyd George by the spring of 1921 was anxious to reach a compromise with Sinn Féin.

While [[Edward Carson]] had led the Unionist movement throughout Ireland, his right-hand man, Sir [[James Craig]] was more than able to take his place as leader of the Unionist movement in Northern Ireland. Craig acted as a broker between the Ulster Unionists and London in working out key details of the Government of Ireland Act of 1920. Craig helped reorganize the UVF as a separate unit to defend Northern Ireland against the IRA; this led to the formation of the Ulster Special Constabulary in November 1920. In 1921 there were pitched battles with IRA insurgents supported by Collins in Dublin. In January 1921 the new government of Northern Ireland began operations with Craig as Prime Minister.<ref>It moved to the Stormont estate in 1932, and was often called the Stormont government.</ref> Craig was helped by a weak Nationalist opposition - the Republicans and their more moderate Nationalist colleagues had been divided on how to deal with the new entity, as they wanted reunion with the South and mot union with the UK. By contrast the Unionists were united and won repeated large majorities in the parliament (winning forty, compared to twelve seats combined for Nationalist and Republican candidates). Craig saw his priorities as establishing the new state on firm foundations; defending it against its enemies, within (who were loyal to Dublin) and without (the Irish Free State); preventing his over-zealous supporters from taking the law into their own hands (which might destabilize the state and bring intervention from London); and keeping a watchful eye on London, where Lloyd George by the spring of 1921 was anxious to reach a compromise with Sinn Féin.

The Stormont parliament gerrymandered electoral districts to minimise Catholic representation. In 1929, the Unionists abolished the system of proportional representation, set up by the British Parliament and used the first past the post system used in Britain. The new system hit the smaller parties the hardest, with Labour and Independent Unionists losing four seats in the election.<ref>John Whyte, "How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921-68?"  in ''Contemporary Irish Studies,'' edited by Tom Gallagher and James O'Connell (1983), [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm online edition]</ref> When [[Eamon de Valera]] proclaimed Ireland was "a Catholic nation," Craig responded in 1934, that he stood for "a Protestant parliament and a Protestant state."<ref>Boyce (2004)</ref> In 1937 Éire approved a new constitution that claimed sovereignty over the entire island.<ref>Article 2 said "The national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland;" article 3 claimed the "right of the Parliament and Government established by this Constitution to exercise jurisdiction over the whole of that territory." Article 9 added, "Fidelity to the nation and loyalty to the State are fundamental political duties of all citizens." See  [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/coi37a.htm#nation]</ref> With Éire claiming the entire island was rightfully theirs, Unionists were convinced that the Ulster Catholics were not loyal to King and country, and could not be trusted with responsibilities. Those Catholics who were elected to Stormont usually refused to take an oath of allegiance to the nation. Catholic protests at systematic discrimination in voting, housing and public resources formed the core of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. The historian of the Catholics asks, "how 'disloyal' were Catholics after partition?" and notes that Catholics who visibly supported the government were ostracized by other Catholics. She concludes, "It is certainly true that not until the 1960s were Catholics prepared to accept the legitimacy of the Northern Ireland state. But neither did they actively try to subvert it.... The bulk of northern Catholics remained, as they had always been, conservative, clerically-dominated, but utterly constitutional nationalists."<ref>Elliott, ''Catholics of Ulster'' (2001) p. 396</ref>

The Stormont parliament gerrymandered electoral districts to minimise Catholic representation. In 1929, the Unionists abolished the system of proportional representation, set up by the British Parliament and used the first past the post system used in Britain. The new system hit the smaller parties the hardest, with Labour and Independent Unionists losing four seats in the election.<ref>John Whyte, "How much discrimination was there under the unionist regime, 1921-68?"  in ''Contemporary Irish Studies,'' edited by Tom Gallagher and James O'Connell (1983), [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm online edition]</ref> When [[Eamon de Valera]] proclaimed Ireland was "a Catholic nation," Craig responded in 1934, that he stood for "a Protestant parliament and a Protestant state."<ref>Boyce (2004)</ref> In 1937 Éire approved a new constitution that claimed sovereignty over the entire island.<ref>Article 2 said "The national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland;" article 3 claimed the "right of the Parliament and Government established by this Constitution to exercise jurisdiction over the whole of that territory." Article 9 added, "Fidelity to the nation and loyalty to the State are fundamental political duties of all citizens." See  [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/coi37a.htm#nation]</ref> With Éire claiming the entire island was rightfully theirs, Unionists were convinced that the Ulster Catholics were not loyal to King and country, and could not be trusted with responsibilities. Those Catholics who were elected to Stormont usually refused to take an oath of allegiance to the nation. Catholic protests at systematic discrimination in voting, housing and public resources formed the core of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. The historian of the Catholics asks, "how 'disloyal' were Catholics after partition?" and notes that Catholics who visibly supported the government were ostracized by other Catholics. She concludes, "It is certainly true that not until the 1960s were Catholics prepared to accept the legitimacy of the Northern Ireland state. But neither did they actively try to subvert it.... The bulk of northern Catholics remained, as they had always been, conservative, clerically-dominated, but utterly constitutional nationalists."<ref>Elliott, ''Catholics of Ulster'' (2001) p. 396</ref>

"The Troubles" refers to a 30-year period of terrorism and civil unrest.  The Troubles are generally considered to have begun with civil rights movement and the violent unionist response.  Northern Ireland prime minister Terrence O'Neill at first responded favorably to the demands of the protestors, but this attitude was decried by other unionists, including [[Ian Paisley]].  Many unionists believed that NICRA was controlled by the [[IRA]].  Following the violence at Burntollet Bridge, nationalists in the city of Derry began to erect barricades to protect themselves.  This led to the Battle of the Bogside between nationalists and police prior to a unionist march that was scheduled to pass the nationalist Bogside area of the city.  The Battle of the Bogside lasted from August 12 to 14, 1969 before British troops were called to resolve the situation.  In the meantime, fierce rioting broke out in other parts of the country, including Belfast, Newry, and Strabane.  In total, 7 people were killed and 750 injured during the unrest in August 1969, and 1,500 Catholic families and 500 Protestant families were forced from their homes.  The Northern Ireland government then requested the presence of British troops throughout the country to keep order.

"The Troubles" refers to a 30-year period of terrorism and civil unrest.  The Troubles are generally considered to have begun with civil rights movement and the violent unionist response.  Northern Ireland prime minister Terrence O'Neill at first responded favorably to the demands of the protestors, but this attitude was decried by other unionists, including [[Ian Paisley]].  Many unionists believed that NICRA was controlled by the [[IRA]].  Following the violence at Burntollet Bridge, nationalists in the city of Derry began to erect barricades to protect themselves.  This led to the Battle of the Bogside between nationalists and police prior to a unionist march that was scheduled to pass the nationalist Bogside area of the city.  The Battle of the Bogside lasted from August 12 to 14, 1969 before British troops were called to resolve the situation.  In the meantime, fierce rioting broke out in other parts of the country, including Belfast, Newry, and Strabane.  In total, 7 people were killed and 750 injured during the unrest in August 1969, and 1,500 Catholic families and 500 Protestant families were forced from their homes.  The Northern Ireland government then requested the presence of British troops throughout the country to keep order.

The violence of the Troubles peaked during the early 1970s, spurred by an influx of recruits to various terrorist organisations, including the republican [[IRA]] and the loyalist [[Ulster Defence Association]] and [[Ulster Volunteer Force]].  A number of events combined to widen the divide between the nationalist and unionist communities.  For nationalists, these included the Falls Curfew of July 1970, in which British troops cordoned off nationalist neighborhoods in Belfast, not allowing residents in or out of the area; 4 nationalists were killed in fighting between British troops and the IRA.  The introduction of internment without trial in August 1971 was viewed by nationalists as discriminatory, as 348 of the first 350 people interned were nationalists.  Of nearly 2,000 people interned over the next four years, 94.6% were nationalists. For unionists, [[IRA]] actions similarly hardened their positions.  For example, the IRA carried out 1,300 bombings by the end of 1972, largely against commercial targets, considerably disrupting everyday life and often resulting in the deaths of uninvolved civilians.  The worst example during this period is known as Bloody Friday, when the IRA set off 22 bombs on July 21, 1972, causing 9 deaths and 130 injuries.  The IRA provided warnings to security forces via the media, but given the number of bombs planted did not give sufficient time to allow the security forces to evacuate the areas.  In some cases, ambiguous warnings led to people being led toward, rather than away from, bombs about to be detonated.

The violence of the Troubles peaked during the early 1970s, spurred by an influx of recruits to various terrorist organisations, including the republican [[IRA]] and the loyalist [[Ulster Defence Association]] and [[Ulster Volunteer Force]].  A number of events combined to widen the divide between the nationalist and unionist communities.  For nationalists, these included the Falls Curfew of July 1970, in which British troops cordoned off nationalist neighborhoods in Belfast, not allowing residents in or out of the area; 4 nationalists were killed in fighting between British troops and the IRA.  The introduction of internment without trial in August 1971 was viewed by nationalists as discriminatory, as 348 of the first 350 people interned were nationalists.  Of nearly 2,000 people interned over the next four years, 94.6% were nationalists. For unionists, IRA actions similarly hardened their positions.  For example, the IRA carried out 1,300 bombings by the end of 1972, largely against commercial targets, considerably disrupting everyday life and often resulting in the deaths of uninvolved civilians.  The worst example during this period is known as Bloody Friday, when the IRA set off 22 bombs on July 21, 1972, causing 9 deaths and 130 injuries.  The IRA provided warnings to security forces via the media, but given the number of bombs planted did not give sufficient time to allow the security forces to evacuate the areas.  In some cases, ambiguous warnings led to people being led toward, rather than away from, bombs about to be detonated.

In 1972 the UK government, deeming the Northern Ireland government unable to stabilise the situation, suspended the Northern Ireland parliament and instituted direct rule from London.  While direct rule was intended as a temporary measure, it continued throughout the course of the Troubles.

In 1972 the UK government, deeming the Northern Ireland government unable to stabilise the situation, suspended the Northern Ireland parliament and instituted direct rule from London.  While direct rule was intended as a temporary measure, it continued throughout the course of the Troubles.

| [[British monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]

| [[British monarchy|Monarch]] || Queen [[Elizabeth II]]

|-

|-

| [[UK Prime Ministers|Prime Minster]] || [[David Cameron]] MP

| [[UK Prime Ministers|Prime Minister]] || [[David Cameron]] MP

|-

|-

| [[Secretary of State for Northern Ireland|Secretary of State]] || [[Shaun Woodward]] MP

| [[Secretary of State for Northern Ireland|Secretary of State]] || [[Shaun Woodward]] MP

|}

|}

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.   

Although constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign, parliament and government - there has been moves to give power to national legislature in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, this has taken the form of devolution. Power for certain areas of government like education, health and the environment are fully the responsibility of their national governments. However, central government maintains the right to overturn any decision by a national assembly, as such the [[Parliament of the United Kingom]] remains sovereign in the United Kingdom as a whole.   

=== Devolution ===

=== Devolution ===