Changes

===Founding===

===Founding===

[[Image:Georgefox.jpg|right|thumb|250px|George Fox, drawing c.1834]]

[[Image:Georgefox.jpg|right|thumb|250px|George Fox, drawing c.1834]]

The origin of the Friends can be traced to the mid-17th century in England.  When [[Henry VIII]] severed ties with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and formed the [[anglicanism|Anglican Church]] in 1534, it instigated a new era of religious dissent.  [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s victory in the [[English Civil War]] gave the [[Puritans]] control of Parliament and furthered the atmosphere of dissent.  The Quakers emerged from the radical fringe of the [[Puritan]] movement.  Although impossible to link the formation of the Quakers to any one person,  George Fox is seen as the driving force behind the movement.  Fox, who was raised in the Anglican Church until the age of 19, set out to find a greater spiritual understanding of God in 1643.  He wandered the countryside for three years meeting with religious leaders in search of this understanding, but did not find the answers he was seeking.  This led him to become disillusioned by these external teachings and he began seeking answers inside himself.  In 1647, he believed to have heard the voice of God, which said to him "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition".  It redefined his beliefs on the nature of the relationship between God and man, such as the idea that Christ lived inside all men and women, a church was a meeting of fellowship instead of a building, and that academics was not important to be a minister.  These new ideas were radically different from the elaborate ceremony of the Church of England and the belief in Biblical authority of the Puritans.  Fox spent the next several years preaching throughout the northwest, experiencing great success in convincing (converting) new followers to his cause.  His followers took the name  "Friends of Truth", based off of the Bible verse John 5:15 in which Jesus stated "I have called you friends, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to you."  Although there is no official founding date for the Quaker movement, it is often attributed to 1652 Fox's trip to Pendle Hill in which he received a vision that let him "see in what places he had a great people to be gathered."

The origin of the Friends can be traced to the mid-17th century in England.  When [[Henry VIII]] severed ties with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and formed the [[anglicanism|Anglican Church]] in 1534, it instigated a new era of religious dissent.  [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s victory in the [[English Civil War]] gave the [[Puritans]] control of Parliament and furthered the atmosphere of dissent.  The Quakers emerged from the radical fringe of the [[Puritan]] movement.  Although impossible to link the formation of the Quakers to any one person,  George Fox is seen as the driving force behind the movement.  Fox, who was raised in the Anglican Church until the age of 19, set out to find a greater spiritual understanding of God in 1643.  He wandered the countryside for three years meeting with religious leaders in search of this understanding, but did not find the answers he was seeking.  This led him to become disillusioned by these external teachings and he began seeking answers inside himself.  In 1647, he believed to have heard the voice of God, which said to him "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition".  It redefined his beliefs on the nature of the relationship between God and man, such as the idea that Christ lived inside all men and women, a church was a meeting of fellowship instead of a building, and that academics was not important to be a minister.  These new ideas were radically different from the elaborate ceremony of the Church of England and the belief in Biblical authority of the Puritans.  Fox spent the next several years preaching throughout the northwest, experiencing great success in convincing (converting) new followers to his cause.  His followers took the name  "Friends of Truth", based on the Bible verse John 5:15 in which Jesus stated "I have called you friends, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to you."  Although there is no official founding date for the Quaker movement, it is often attributed to 1652 Fox's trip to Pendle Hill in which he received a vision that let him "see in what places he had a great people to be gathered."

====Persecution and growth in England====

====Persecution and growth in England====

Small groups of Quakers (who were known as the "Camp of the Lord in England," and later the "First Publishers of Truth" and "the valiant sixty") began preaching their message across the entire country in the 1650's.  They were a disruptive group, frequently interrupting church services to spread their message.  They taught heretical ideas that minimized the importance of the historic Jesus in lieu of the Spirit and the rejection of the Trinity.  The refused to play tithes, take oaths, or treat the aristocracy with customary social respects.  This led to persecution in the forms of jailing, beatings, and loss of employment.  Margaret Fell began organizing "Monthly Meetings" in order to assist persecuted Quakers, which were their first "formal" gatherings.  In 1655, [[James Nayler]], an early leader, brought unwanted attention to the Quaker movement when he rode into Bristol in a reenactment of Jesus' ride into Jerusalem.  He was arrested, tried before Parliament, tortured, and imprisoned and the event led to greater levels of persecution among the Friends.  This led to the need for more organizational control and Fox called for group confirmation to support individual "leadings" (messages from the Spirit) and advised more experienced Friends to be watchful over the actions of others.

Small groups of Quakers (who were known as the "Camp of the Lord in England," and later the "First Publishers of Truth" and "the valiant sixty") began preaching their message across the entire country in the 1650s.  They were a disruptive group, frequently interrupting church services to spread their message.  They taught heretical ideas that minimized the importance of the historic Jesus in lieu of the Spirit and the rejection of the Trinity.  The refused to play tithes, take oaths, or treat the aristocracy with customary social respects.  This led to persecution in the forms of jailing, beatings, and loss of employment.  Margaret Fell began organizing "Monthly Meetings" in order to assist persecuted Quakers, which were their first "formal" gatherings.  In 1655, [[James Nayler]], an early leader, brought unwanted attention to the Quaker movement when he rode into Bristol in a reenactment of Jesus' ride into Jerusalem.  He was arrested, tried before Parliament, tortured, and imprisoned and the event led to greater levels of persecution among the Friends.  This led to the need for more organizational control and Fox called for group confirmation to support individual "leadings" (messages from the Spirit) and advised more experienced Friends to be watchful over the actions of others.

In 1660 the Church of England was reestablished as the official church which led to further persecution of the Quakers.  The [[Restoration]] of [[Charles II]] to the throne in 1660 was met shortly afterward with [[Venner's Rising]] in 1661, which was a failed attempt to overthrow the monarch.  Many Friends were suspected as collaborators and by March over 5,000 per imprisoned.  Fox and other Quaker leaders petitioned Charles with their ''Declaration Concerning Wars and Fighting'' by declaring that "All bloody principles and practices, as to our own particulars, we utterly- deny; with all outward wars and strife, and fighting with - outward weapons, for any end, or under an pretense whatsoever; this is our testimony to the whole world."<ref>{{cite web

In 1660 the Church of England was reestablished as the official church which led to further persecution of the Quakers.  The [[Restoration]] of [[Charles II]] to the throne in 1660 was met shortly afterward with [[Venner's Rising]] in 1661, which was a failed attempt to overthrow the monarch.  Many Friends were suspected as collaborators and by March over 5,000 per imprisoned.  Fox and other Quaker leaders petitioned Charles with their ''Declaration Concerning Wars and Fighting'' by declaring that "All bloody principles and practices, as to our own particulars, we utterly- deny; with all outward wars and strife, and fighting with - outward weapons, for any end, or under an pretense whatsoever; this is our testimony to the whole world."<ref>{{cite web

Starting in 1656 the Quaker missionaries arrived in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], a Puritan controlled colony which took a hard line against dissenting views.  The authorities seized the new arrivals immediately, imprisoned them, burnt their literature, and expelled them from the colony.  Laws were also passed fining ship captains who brought Friends to the colony, as well as people who defended the Friends or owned Quaker literature; the colonial leadership was more concerned with the Quaker beliefs they considered seditious, rather than their religious dissent.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988)  p.51</ref>  The missionaries were undaunted, however, and began sneaking into the colony, disregarding the persecution handed down to them.  In an effort to maintain control, the colonial government enacted the death penalty for any Quaker who had been expelled from the colony three times; in August of 1659 Quaker missionaries William Robinson, John Stephenson, and Mary Dyer defied the law and were executed in Boston. In 1661 the General Assembly passed a "Cart and Whip" bill, which led to arresting Friends and transporting them to [[Rhode Island]] while whipping them in each town they passed through.

Starting in 1656 the Quaker missionaries arrived in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], a Puritan controlled colony which took a hard line against dissenting views.  The authorities seized the new arrivals immediately, imprisoned them, burnt their literature, and expelled them from the colony.  Laws were also passed fining ship captains who brought Friends to the colony, as well as people who defended the Friends or owned Quaker literature; the colonial leadership was more concerned with the Quaker beliefs they considered seditious, rather than their religious dissent.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988)  p.51</ref>  The missionaries were undaunted, however, and began sneaking into the colony, disregarding the persecution handed down to them.  In an effort to maintain control, the colonial government enacted the death penalty for any Quaker who had been expelled from the colony three times; in August of 1659 Quaker missionaries William Robinson, John Stephenson, and Mary Dyer defied the law and were executed in Boston. In 1661 the General Assembly passed a "Cart and Whip" bill, which led to arresting Friends and transporting them to [[Rhode Island]] while whipping them in each town they passed through.

The Quakers found Rhode Island to be much more welcoming, as it was a colony founded by the Massachusetts religious exiles [[Roger Williams]] and [[Anne Hutchinson]].  There was a high rate of conversion in the colony, for Williams and Hutchinson did not try to organize their own church.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.53</ref>  By the 1670's the Quakers emerged as the dominant political and religious faction in the colony. Quakers for a while controlled West Jersey, where they created landed estates.<ref>It was a separate colony that later merged with East Jersey to form New Jersey.</ref> They established prosperous farming settlements in Virginia and North Carolina.

The Quakers found Rhode Island to be much more welcoming, as it was a colony founded by the Massachusetts religious exiles [[Roger Williams]] and [[Anne Hutchinson]].  There was a high rate of conversion in the colony, for Williams and Hutchinson did not try to organize their own church.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.53</ref>  By the 1670s the Quakers emerged as the dominant political and religious faction in the colony. Quakers for a while controlled West Jersey, where they created landed estates.<ref>It was a separate colony that later merged with East Jersey to form New Jersey.</ref> They established prosperous farming settlements in Virginia and North Carolina.

====Role of women====

====Role of women====

===Peace Testimony===

===Peace Testimony===

The Peace Testimony prohibited Friends as a group from supporting a war. It proved highly controversial among Quakers, for they also believed in their duty to uphold the government. There has always been a continuum of beliefs among Friends, from pacifism and peace activism, to outright military activity.<ref>Chuck Fager, "A Great Deep: The Peace Testimony and Historical Realism," ''Quaker Theology'' #6 Spring 2002 [http://www.quaker.org/quest/issue6-4-Fager-Deep01.htm online edition]</ref> The Quaker-controlled colony of Rhode Island took part in King Phillip's War of 1675-76.<ref>"Rhode Island exiled Indians, supplied boats to the Plymouth and Massachusetts armies, blockaded Philip. . . provisioned and provided a safe haven for colonial troops, raised and dispatched soldiers, stored ammunition, transported troops . . . to battle, encouraged the mobilization and training of the local militias, deployed gunboats, manned an official garrison, contributed troops to the final search for Philip himself-–and at last, tried and executed prisoners of war." Meredith Baldwin Weddle, ''Walking in the Way of Peace: Quaker Pacifism in the Seventeenth Century.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 170.</ref> By contrast, the Quaker-controlled Pennsylvania colonial government blocked the formation of local militias; helpless settlers were massacred in Indian raids in the French and Indian War of the 1750s. The failure to protect settlers caused serious dissension in the Quaker community, which verged on schism. The solution adopted was for the Quakers to withdraw completely from the government.<ref>Illick (1976) esp 201, 212-20</ref>

The Peace Testimony prohibited Friends as a group from supporting a war. It proved highly controversial among Quakers, for they also believed in their duty to uphold the government. There has always been a continuum of beliefs among Friends, from pacifism and peace activism, to outright military activity.<ref>Chuck Fager, "A Great Deep: The Peace Testimony and Historical Realism," ''Quaker Theology'' #6 Spring 2002 [http://www.quaker.org/quest/issue6-4-Fager-Deep01.htm online edition]</ref> The Quaker-controlled colony of Rhode Island took part in King Philip's War of 1675-76.<ref>"Rhode Island exiled Indians, supplied boats to the Plymouth and Massachusetts armies, blockaded Philip. . . provisioned and provided a safe haven for colonial troops, raised and dispatched soldiers, stored ammunition, transported troops . . . to battle, encouraged the mobilization and training of the local militias, deployed gunboats, manned an official garrison, contributed troops to the final search for Philip himself-–and at last, tried and executed prisoners of war." Meredith Baldwin Weddle, ''Walking in the Way of Peace: Quaker Pacifism in the Seventeenth Century.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 170.</ref> By contrast, the Quaker-controlled Pennsylvania colonial government blocked the formation of local militias; helpless settlers were massacred in Indian raids in the French and Indian War of the 1750s. The failure to protect settlers caused serious dissension in the Quaker community, which verged on schism. The solution adopted was for the Quakers to withdraw completely from the government.<ref>Illick (1976) esp 201, 212-20</ref>

Although the Peace testimony remained important for some Quakers, in practice the majority supported American wars, according to an Indiana case study. When the United States entered World War I in 1917 nearly all Indiana Quakers ceased any peace advocacy and probably two-thirds of eligible Indiana Quakers served in the military. In World War II, most Quakers regarded it as as a just war and it is estimated that 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. In the late 1940s some radicals refused to register for conscription, but they were not well supported and many Quakers regarded the Korean War (1950–53) as a justifiable police action. Although opposition to the Vietnam War steadily grew, conservative Quakers were uncomfortable with the radical tendencies of conscientious objectors and some Indiana Quakers openly supported the war. No Indiana congregations endorsed civil disobedience, and two opposed it. In 1990 the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends declared opposition to the use of force in the Persian Gulf, but by then the majority of Indiana Quakers no longer considered themselves pacifists.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm, Margaret Marconi, Gretchen Kleinhen Salinas, and Benjamin Whitman, "The Decline of Quaker Pacifism in the Twentieth Century: Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends as a Case Study." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2000 96(1): 44-71. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Although the Peace testimony remained important for some Quakers, in practice the majority supported American wars, according to an Indiana case study. When the United States entered World War I in 1917 nearly all Indiana Quakers ceased any peace advocacy and probably two-thirds of eligible Indiana Quakers served in the military. In World War II, most Quakers regarded it as a just war and it is estimated that 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. In the late 1940s some radicals refused to register for conscription, but they were not well supported and many Quakers regarded the Korean War (1950–53) as a justifiable police action. Although opposition to the Vietnam War steadily grew, conservative Quakers were uncomfortable with the radical tendencies of conscientious objectors and some Indiana Quakers openly supported the war. No Indiana congregations endorsed civil disobedience, and two opposed it. In 1990 the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends declared opposition to the use of force in the Persian Gulf, but by then the majority of Indiana Quakers no longer considered themselves pacifists.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm, Margaret Marconi, Gretchen Kleinhen Salinas, and Benjamin Whitman, "The Decline of Quaker Pacifism in the Twentieth Century: Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends as a Case Study." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2000 96(1): 44-71. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===American Friends Service Committee===

===American Friends Service Committee===

The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) began in in 1917 and in 1947 received the Nobel Peace Prize. Founded to aid conscientious objectors during World War I, the AFSC continued to promote pacifism during World War II. During the Cold War, it focused on providing relief to European countries that suffered from superpower conflicts and worked for reconciliation between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1947 the AFSC decided to become more involved politically and to rely on professionals, but it failed to effect changes in American public policy. The turn to professional lobbying diluted the Quakers' religious message.<ref>H. Larry Ingle, "The American Friends Service Committee, 1947-49: the Cold War's Effect" ''Peace & Change'' 1998 23(1): 27-48. Issn: 0149-0508 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) began in in 1917 and in 1947 received the Nobel Peace Prize. Founded to aid conscientious objectors during World War I, the AFSC continued to promote pacifism during World War II. During the Cold War, it focused on providing relief to European countries that suffered from superpower conflicts and worked for reconciliation between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1947 the AFSC decided to become more involved politically and to rely on professionals, but it failed to effect changes in American public policy. The turn to professional lobbying diluted the Quakers' religious message.<ref>H. Larry Ingle, "The American Friends Service Committee, 1947-49: the Cold War's Effect" ''Peace & Change'' 1998 23(1): 27-48. Issn: 0149-0508 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

The perceptions outsiders have held of Quakers has included friendly and hostile elements.  In his campaign for president in 1928, for example, Herbert Hoover's religion came under attack as inappropriate for a commander in chief.  

The perceptions outsiders have held of Quakers has included friendly and hostile elements.  In his campaign for president in 1928, for example, Herbert Hoover's religion came under attack as inappropriate for a commander in chief.  

The Quakers became known for their inventiveness, entrepreneurship, business acumen, and their interlocking business ties; they were trusted by outsiders who welcomed the self-censorship Quakers imposed on each other to maintain high ethical standards.  Many leading British entrepreneurs of the 18th and 19th centuries were Quakers, especially merchants in London and industrialists who pioneered the [[Industrial Revolution]] in machinery, metals, textiles, railways and food products.  A handful of Quaker families (the Darbys, Reynolds, Lloyds, Champions, and Rawlinsons) dominated the British iron industry. The Barclays and Lloyds were powerful bankers.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p 86-88; Ann Prior and Maurice Kirby, "The Society of Friends and the Family Firm, 1700-1830." ''Business History'' 1993 35(4): 66-85. Issn: 0007-6791 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>    Quakers were disproportionately representation among physicians, and among the the scientists of the Royal Society.<ref>Walvin, ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' (1997).</ref>

The Quakers became known for their inventiveness, entrepreneurship, business acumen, and their interlocking business ties; they were trusted by outsiders who welcomed the self-censorship Quakers imposed on each other to maintain high ethical standards.  Many leading British entrepreneurs of the 18th and 19th centuries were Quakers, especially merchants in London and industrialists who pioneered the [[Industrial Revolution]] in machinery, metals, textiles, railways and food products.  A handful of Quaker families (the Darbys, Reynolds, Lloyds, Champions, and Rawlinsons) dominated the British iron industry. The Barclays and Lloyds were powerful bankers.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p 86-88; Ann Prior and Maurice Kirby, "The Society of Friends and the Family Firm, 1700-1830." ''Business History'' 1993 35(4): 66-85. Issn: 0007-6791 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>    Quakers were disproportionately representation among physicians, and among the scientists of the Royal Society.<ref>Walvin, ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' (1997).</ref>

There was a great deal of popular representation of Quakers---in jokes, popular magazines, novels, images, advertising and other media---from 1850 to 1920.<ref>Connerley, (2006)</ref> Popular representations of Friends typically approved the devout distinctiveness attributed to stereotypical Quakers, as evidenced by their plain dress, plain speech, and refusal to swear oaths.  The fact that Quakers were changing was ignored as the popular perception idealized a plain-dressed, old-fashioned representative of a national purity, piety, and unity.

There was a great deal of popular representation of Quakers---in jokes, popular magazines, novels, images, advertising and other media---from 1850 to 1920.<ref>Connerley, (2006)</ref> Popular representations of Friends typically approved the devout distinctiveness attributed to stereotypical Quakers, as evidenced by their plain dress, plain speech, and refusal to swear oaths.  The fact that Quakers were changing was ignored as the popular perception idealized a plain-dressed, old-fashioned representative of a national purity, piety, and unity.

==Peace==

==Peace==

Quakers have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of Friends is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

Quakers have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of Friends is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However, there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

==Plain dress==

==Plain dress==

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.  

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.