Changes

Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns?  Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned.  Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure.  

Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns?  Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned.  Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure.  

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World history]] is in fashion.

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or Arnold J. Toynbee (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World history]] is in fashion.

==Postmodernism==

==Postmodernism==

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has appeared in historiography, especially in pulling most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has appeared in historiography, especially in pulling most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

* Kelley, Donald R. ''Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Frontiers-History-Historical-Inquiry-Twentieth/dp/0300120621/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209904366&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]  

* Kelley, Donald R. ''Frontiers of History: Historical Inquiry in the Twentieth Century'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Frontiers-History-Historical-Inquiry-Twentieth/dp/0300120621/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209904366&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]  

*  Ritter, Harry. ''Dictionary of Concepts in History'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Concepts-Reference-Sciences-Humanities/dp/0313227004/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197753622&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

*  Ritter, Harry. ''Dictionary of Concepts in History'' (1986) [http://www.amazon.com/Dictionary-Concepts-Reference-Sciences-Humanities/dp/0313227004/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197753622&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ''The Past as Text: The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography'' 1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Past-Text-Practice-Historiography-Re-visions/dp/0801862590/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ''The Past as Text: The Theory and Practice of Medieval Historiography'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Past-Text-Practice-Historiography-Re-visions/dp/0801862590/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]

* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ed. ''Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Practicing-History-Directions-Historical-Rewriting/dp/0415341086/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Spiegel, Gabrielle M. ed. ''Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Practicing-History-Directions-Historical-Rewriting/dp/0415341086/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1209889975&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

*  Stokes, Melvyn. ''The State of U.S. History'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102287734 online edition]

*  Stokes, Melvyn. ''The State of U.S. History'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102287734 online edition]