Changes

|number=2nd

|number=2nd

|terms=March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801

|terms=March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801

|president=[[John Adams]]

|president=John Adams

|preceded=[[John Adams]]

|preceded=John Adams

|former=y

|former=y

|succeeded=[[Aaron Burr]]

|succeeded=[[Aaron Burr]]

==1790s==

==1790s==

Jefferson returned from France in 1789 and became the first Secretary of State (1789-1793) in the cabinet of President [[George Washington]]. With his close ally [[James Madison]] (a member of the House) Jefferson opposed the Hamiltonian programs for national finance, especially assumption of state wartime debts and the [[First National Bank]]. Jefferson and Madison and created a new party, the Republicans, to oppose Hamilton's [[Federalist party]]. These were the first two modern political parties in the world (that is the first to reach out to the voters for support). Jefferson and his Republicans supported the French Revolution (from 1793 to 1800), while the Federalists favored Britain. According to authors [[Christopher Ferrara]] and [[Conor Cruise O'Brien]], Jefferson supported the excesses for the French Revolution and to a certain extent the September Massacres and the execution of King Louis XVI that he even wrote to William Short the Adam and Eve Letter that made clear that he was willing to allow for all but two people of each country to be exterminated in the name of liberty, just a couple of weeks before King Louis XVI was killed.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/96oct/obrien/adam.htm The "Adam and Eve" letter], From Thomas Jefferson to William Short]</ref> and inferred that faith in the French Revolution had been his "polar star."<ref>''Notes on a Conversation with George Washington''</ref><ref>Liberty, the God That Failed: Policing the Sacred and Constructing the Myths of the Secular State, from Locke to Obama, p. 196</ref><ref>[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/616533.html Thomas Jefferson and the Impending Schism in the American Civil Religion]</ref> President Washington managed to maintain neutrality in the war between Britain and France. Hamilton had more influence than Jefferson, even in foreign policy, as shown by Hamilton's success in securing the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795 that opened ten years of friendly trade with Britain.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 7</ref>   

Jefferson returned from France in 1789 and became the first Secretary of State (1789-1793) in the cabinet of President [[George Washington]]. With his close ally [[James Madison]] (a member of the House) Jefferson opposed the Hamiltonian programs for national finance, especially assumption of state wartime debts and the [[First National Bank]]. Jefferson and Madison and created a new party, the Republicans, to oppose Hamilton's [[Federalist party]]. These were the first two modern political parties in the world (that is the first to reach out to the voters for support). Jefferson and his Republicans supported the French Revolution (from 1793 to 1800), while the Federalists favored Britain. According to authors [[Christopher Ferrara]] and [[Conor Cruise O'Brien]], Jefferson supported the excesses for the French Revolution and to a certain extent the September Massacres and the execution of King Louis XVI that he even wrote to William Short the Adam and Eve Letter that made clear that he was willing to allow for all but two people of each country to be exterminated in the name of liberty, just a couple of weeks before King Louis XVI was killed.<ref>[http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/96oct/obrien/adam.htm The "Adam and Eve" letter], From Thomas Jefferson to William Short</ref> and inferred that faith in the French Revolution had been his "polar star."<ref>''Notes on a Conversation with George Washington''</ref><ref>Liberty, the God That Failed: Policing the Sacred and Constructing the Myths of the Secular State, from Locke to Obama, p. 196</ref><ref>[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/616533.html Thomas Jefferson and the Impending Schism in the American Civil Religion]</ref> President Washington managed to maintain neutrality in the war between Britain and France. Hamilton had more influence than Jefferson, even in foreign policy, as shown by Hamilton's success in securing the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1795 that opened ten years of friendly trade with Britain.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 7</ref>   

Jefferson was defeated for president in the election of 1796 by [[John Adams]], but became vice president. When the [[Quasi War]] (that is undeclared war) with France broke out in 1798 and Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition laws]], Jefferson and Madison protested by secretly writing the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] of 1798. They argued the right of state governments to nullify federal laws considered unconstitutional; this was the start of the [[States Rights]] theory that played a role in the coming of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 and still plays a role in Constitutional debates.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 8.</ref>

Jefferson was defeated for president in the election of 1796 by [[John Adams]], but became vice president. When the [[Quasi War]] (that is undeclared war) with France broke out in 1798 and Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition laws]], Jefferson and Madison protested by secretly writing the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] of 1798. They argued the right of state governments to nullify federal laws considered unconstitutional; this was the start of the [[States Rights]] theory that played a role in the coming of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 and still plays a role in Constitutional debates.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 8.</ref>

Jefferson's second term was marked by escalating tensions with both Britain and France (which were at war with each other). Jefferson's use of economic warfare, especially the [[Embargo of 1807]], failed, as he tried to crack down on New England merchants who defied laws that restricted their trade. Jefferson opposed building up the army or navy, insisting that the militia would suffice, aided by small gunboats.   

Jefferson's second term was marked by escalating tensions with both Britain and France (which were at war with each other). Jefferson's use of economic warfare, especially the [[Embargo of 1807]], failed, as he tried to crack down on New England merchants who defied laws that restricted their trade. Jefferson opposed building up the army or navy, insisting that the militia would suffice, aided by small gunboats.   

Most historians judge his military policies a major disaster. Neither the militia nor the gunboat proved to be of much use in the [[War of 1812]] with Britain. This war began three years after Jefferson left office.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 10</ref> Jefferson left the White House under a cloud and never ran for office again. The country was drifting toward war with Britain, but it remained woefully unprepared for such a war.<ref>Jefferson's secretary of state, [[James Madison]], stated that if economic pressure did not get results, war was inevitable. (Wood, Gordon, ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009), p. 661.)</ref>  

Most historians judge his military policies a major disaster. Neither the militia nor the gunboat proved to be of much use in the [[War of 1812]] with Britain. This war began three years after Jefferson left office.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 10</ref> Jefferson left the White House under a cloud and never ran for office again. The country was drifting toward war with Britain, but it remained woefully unprepared for such a war.<ref>Jefferson's secretary of state, James Madison, stated that if economic pressure did not get results, war was inevitable. (Wood, Gordon, ''Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815'' (2009), p. 661.)</ref>  

==Retirement==

==Retirement==

In political retirement Jefferson helped create and design the [[University of Virginia]], which he considered a major accomplishment. He believed that republican government depends on an informed citizenry; that education is a duty of the state; and that, while all should be given learning sufficient to enable them to understand their rights and duties as citizens, the "natural aristocracy" of virtue and talent should be drawn forth from the general mass and given every opportunity of public education. He continued through life to advocate this philosophy of education.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 11</ref>     

In political retirement Jefferson helped create and design the [[University of Virginia]], which he considered a major accomplishment. He believed that republican government depends on an informed citizenry; that education is a duty of the state; and that, while all should be given learning sufficient to enable them to understand their rights and duties as citizens, the "natural aristocracy" of virtue and talent should be drawn forth from the general mass and given every opportunity of public education. He continued through life to advocate this philosophy of education.<ref>Peterson, ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation'' (1975) ch. 11</ref>     

Jefferson died on July 4, [[Independence Day]], in 1826.  It was the same day as the death of [[John Adams]].  They had been close friends until the political wars of the 1790s drove them apart, then resumed their friendship with a brilliant correspondence.  

Jefferson died on July 4, [[Independence Day]], in 1826.  It was the same day as the death of John Adams.  They had been close friends until the political wars of the 1790s drove them apart, then resumed their friendship with a brilliant correspondence.  

==Image and memory==

==Image and memory==

* [[Albert Gallatin]]. his Treasury Secretary

* [[Albert Gallatin]]. his Treasury Secretary

* [[Jeffersonian Democracy]], his political coalition

* [[Jeffersonian Democracy]], his political coalition

* [[James Madison]], his Secretary of State

* James Madison, his Secretary of State

==Further reading==

==Further reading==