Changes

Between 1315 and 1388 the Swiss Confederates inflicted three crushing defeats on the [[Habsburgs]], whose aspiration to regional dominion clashed with Swiss self-determination. During that period, five other localities (cantons in modern-day parlance) joined the original three in the Swiss Confederation. Buoyed by their feats, the Swiss Confederates continuously expanded their borders by military means and gained formal independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1499. Routed by the [[France|French]] and [[Venice|Venetians]] near [[Milan]] in 1515, they renounced expansionist policies. By then the Swiss Confederation had become a union of 13 localities with a regularly convening diet administering the subject territories. Swiss mercenaries continued for centuries to serve in other armies; the Swiss Guard of the Pope is a vestige of this tradition.  

Between 1315 and 1388 the Swiss Confederates inflicted three crushing defeats on the [[Habsburgs]], whose aspiration to regional dominion clashed with Swiss self-determination. During that period, five other localities (cantons in modern-day parlance) joined the original three in the Swiss Confederation. Buoyed by their feats, the Swiss Confederates continuously expanded their borders by military means and gained formal independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1499. Routed by the [[France|French]] and [[Venice|Venetians]] near [[Milan]] in 1515, they renounced expansionist policies. By then the Swiss Confederation had become a union of 13 localities with a regularly convening diet administering the subject territories. Swiss mercenaries continued for centuries to serve in other armies; the Swiss Guard of the Pope is a vestige of this tradition.  

The [[Reformation]] led to a division between the [[Protestant]] followers of [[Ulrich Zwingli|Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin|Calvin]] in the German and French parts of the country respectively, and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. Despite two centuries of civil strife, the common interest in the joint subject territories kept the Swiss Confederation from falling apart. The traffic in mercenaries as well as the alienation between the predominantly Protestant Swiss and their Catholic neighbors kept the Swiss Confederation out of the wars of the European powers, which formally recognized Swiss neutrality in the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in 1648. The Swiss remained neutral during the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, but [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], nonetheless, invaded and took control of the country in 1797-98, replacing the loose confederation with a centrally governed unitary [[Satellite nation|satellite state]] under French influence. The Swiss people highly disliked the massive changes that were occurring under Napoleon, and there were at least four coups d'état that occurred between 1800 and 1802.<ref name="Geschichte">[http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/swiss-revolution-helvetic-republic-1798.html Swiss Revolution and the Helvetic Republic (1798)]. ''geschichte-schweiz.ch''. 2004. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> Napoleon was forced to withdraw his troops in 1802, and after a civil war broke out, the Act of Mediation was signed on February 18, 1803, which restored much of the independence and autonomy of the Swiss Cantons.<ref name="Geschichte"/><ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-celebrate-napoleon-s-historic-act/3174096 Swiss celebrate Napoleon's historic act]. ''Swissinfo''. February 20, 2003. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref>  

The [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] led to a division between the [[Protestant]] followers of [[Ulrich Zwingli|Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin|Calvin]] in the German and French parts of the country respectively, and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. Despite two centuries of civil strife, the common interest in the joint subject territories kept the Swiss Confederation from falling apart. The traffic in mercenaries as well as the alienation between the predominantly Protestant Swiss and their Catholic neighbors kept the Swiss Confederation out of the wars of the European powers, which formally recognized Swiss neutrality in the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in 1648. The Swiss remained neutral during the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, but [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], nonetheless, invaded and took control of the country in 1797-98, replacing the loose confederation with a centrally governed unitary [[Satellite nation|satellite state]] under French influence. The Swiss people highly disliked the massive changes that were occurring under Napoleon, and there were at least four coups d'état that occurred between 1800 and 1802.<ref name="Geschichte">[http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/swiss-revolution-helvetic-republic-1798.html Swiss Revolution and the Helvetic Republic (1798)]. ''geschichte-schweiz.ch''. 2004. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> Napoleon was forced to withdraw his troops in 1802, and after a civil war broke out, the Act of Mediation was signed on February 18, 1803, which restored much of the independence and autonomy of the Swiss Cantons.<ref name="Geschichte"/><ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-celebrate-napoleon-s-historic-act/3174096 Swiss celebrate Napoleon's historic act]. ''Swissinfo''. February 20, 2003. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref>  

The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 removed all remaining French control and re-established the old confederation of sovereign states and enshrined Switzerland's status of permanent armed neutrality in international law. In 1848, after a brief civil war between Protestant liberals seeking a centralized national state and Catholic conservatives clinging on to the old order, the majority of Swiss Cantons opted for a Federal State, modeled in part on the [[U.S. Constitution]]. The Swiss Constitution established a range of civic liberties and made far-reaching provisions to maintain cantonal autonomy to placate the vanquished Catholic minority. The Swiss amended their Constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, as well as introducing direct democracy by popular referendum. To this day, cantonal autonomy and referendum democracy remain trademarks of the Swiss polity.

The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 removed all remaining French control and re-established the old confederation of sovereign states and enshrined Switzerland's status of permanent armed neutrality in international law. In 1848, after a brief civil war between Protestant liberals seeking a centralized national state and Catholic conservatives clinging on to the old order, the majority of Swiss Cantons opted for a Federal State, modeled in part on the [[U.S. Constitution]]. The Swiss Constitution established a range of civic liberties and made far-reaching provisions to maintain cantonal autonomy to placate the vanquished Catholic minority. The Swiss amended their Constitution extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, as well as introducing direct democracy by popular referendum. To this day, cantonal autonomy and referendum democracy remain trademarks of the Swiss polity.