Changes

:*The next stage – immediately following the death of Edward IV in 1483 – started as a purely Yorkist affair when the new (uncrowned) king’s paternal uncle, Richard, kidnapped the boy, had his and his younger brother’s legitimacy questioned, his maternal relations and their supporters killed, imprisoned or exiled, and had himself crowned as [[Richard III]]. He put down a rebellion by his erstwhile friend and ally, the Duke of Buckingham 4 months later, then was forced to withstand a protracted campaign of rumour and innuendo about the deaths of the princes and other alleged misdeeds before the Lancastrian [[Henry Tudor]]’s invasion and victory at [[Bosworth Field]] in 1485.

:*The next stage – immediately following the death of Edward IV in 1483 – started as a purely Yorkist affair when the new (uncrowned) king’s paternal uncle, Richard, kidnapped the boy, had his and his younger brother’s legitimacy questioned, his maternal relations and their supporters killed, imprisoned or exiled, and had himself crowned as [[Richard III]]. He put down a rebellion by his erstwhile friend and ally, the Duke of Buckingham 4 months later, then was forced to withstand a protracted campaign of rumour and innuendo about the deaths of the princes and other alleged misdeeds before the Lancastrian [[Henry Tudor]]’s invasion and victory at [[Bosworth Field]] in 1485.

:*Yorkist agitation and plotting (mainly from abroad) was an annoyance during the first two years of the new [[Tudor]] king [[Henry VII]]’s reign. It reached a climax when a child, [[Lambert Simnel]], was put forward as a nephew of Richard III, and sent with a Yorkist invasion force to claim his “rightful place”. Henry’s victory at the Battle of Stoke secured his position as king, and ended the so-called “Wars of the Roses”.  

:*Yorkist agitation and plotting (mainly from abroad) was an annoyance during the first two years of the new [[Tudor]] king Henry VII’s reign. It reached a climax when a child, [[Lambert Simnel]], was put forward as a nephew of Richard III, and sent with a Yorkist invasion force to claim his “rightful place”. Henry’s victory at the Battle of Stoke secured his position as king, and ended the so-called “Wars of the Roses”.  

It may seem strange in a time of armed unrest that more and more buildings were being built of brick instead of stone and that whilst powerful men were still building their castles, the fortified residence with its chimneys and large south-facing windows was beginning to replace the traditional castle throughout south and central England. Many of the first stone bridges were built during this period – a sure sign of a belief in permanence. The grammar school, which once had been strictly for the benefit of the clergy, was becoming a secular institution and [[Cambridge]] was beginning to rival [[Oxford]] as a great university (although the completion of some of the more famous colleges endowed during that time was held up by the wartime lack of funds.)  [[William Caxton]] introduced the printing press and books, not only in Latin but in English – and importantly standardised English – began appearing in great numbers. Feudalism was finally all but extinguished and the rise of an educated middle-class – either based on the land, or engaged in commerce - accelerated. More and more, the commoner became the capitalist – replacing the magnate who was busy concentrating on things military. The roots of the dramatic rise of England as a commercial power during the later Tudor years can be traced to this period. The prosperity of the capital, [[London]], increased markedly during the wars – its leaders wisely stayed clear of favouritism but accepted the business and patronage of all with equal commercial zeal.

It may seem strange in a time of armed unrest that more and more buildings were being built of brick instead of stone and that whilst powerful men were still building their castles, the fortified residence with its chimneys and large south-facing windows was beginning to replace the traditional castle throughout south and central England. Many of the first stone bridges were built during this period – a sure sign of a belief in permanence. The grammar school, which once had been strictly for the benefit of the clergy, was becoming a secular institution and [[Cambridge]] was beginning to rival [[Oxford]] as a great university (although the completion of some of the more famous colleges endowed during that time was held up by the wartime lack of funds.)  [[William Caxton]] introduced the printing press and books, not only in Latin but in English – and importantly standardised English – began appearing in great numbers. Feudalism was finally all but extinguished and the rise of an educated middle-class – either based on the land, or engaged in commerce - accelerated. More and more, the commoner became the capitalist – replacing the magnate who was busy concentrating on things military. The roots of the dramatic rise of England as a commercial power during the later Tudor years can be traced to this period. The prosperity of the capital, [[London]], increased markedly during the wars – its leaders wisely stayed clear of favouritism but accepted the business and patronage of all with equal commercial zeal.

For all that, for the noble protagonists these contests were vicious affairs, and for the first time in English history it became common for the losing commanders, if captured, to be executed, either on the field of battle or shortly after. There was none of the holding in sociable incarceration the captured noble whilst his family organised a ransom, as had been the norm during the wars in [[France]]. The flower of England’s chivalry was pruned dramatically; which in the short term assisted Henry VII in his efforts at establishing a power-base from which to stabilise the country, but also did away with an active counter-balance to the powers of the monarch, thus contributing to the rise of royal absolutism that would only end with another bout of far worse country-wide blood-letting nearly two centuries later.

For all that, for the noble protagonists these contests were vicious affairs, and for the first time in English history it became common for the losing commanders, if captured, to be executed, either on the field of battle or shortly after. There was none of the holding in sociable incarceration the captured noble whilst his family organised a ransom, as had been the norm during the wars in [[France]]. The flower of England’s chivalry was pruned dramatically; which in the short term assisted Henry VII in his efforts at establishing a power-base from which to stabilise the country, but also did away with an active counterbalance to the powers of the monarch, thus contributing to the rise of royal absolutism that would only end with another bout of far worse country-wide blood-letting nearly two centuries later.