Changes

Much of Roman construction was poured concrete, made primarily from seashells. This concrete was able to cure underwater, vital to bridging rivers and bodies of water.

Much of Roman construction was poured concrete, made primarily from seashells. This concrete was able to cure underwater, vital to bridging rivers and bodies of water.

== Decline of the Western Roman Empire==

== Decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire==

The causes of the decline of the Roman Empire are controversial and are often considered to be a result of several events building over time.  There was no one "cause".  As famous author and historian [[Will Durant]] states, 'An Empire is not conquered from without, until it has fallen from within.'

The causes of the decline of the Roman Empire are controversial and are often considered to be a result of several events building over time.  There was no one "cause".  As famous author and historian [[Will Durant]] states, 'An Empire is not conquered from without, until it has fallen from within.'

Goldsworthy (2009) sees steady decline and rejects Heather's arguments that the later empire was prosperous or strong. The Persians and various barbarian tribes were not especially stronger, either in numbers or organization, than Rome. Instead Rome's greatest enemy was itself. The constant civil wars fought after Marcus Aurelius destabilized Roman society and weakened the borders, allowing otherwise weak enemies to exploit Roman instability.  Goldsworthy notes that senators were excluded from military command in ordder to strengthen the emperor, but this weakened the army. Tensions between the civil bureaucracy and the army, and the use of smaller and smaller units to prevent any opponent getting a power base reduced the empire's ability to quickly counter any foreign invasion. An increasing number of foreigners were allowed to occupy the land, thus depriving the West of needed tax revenue, which in turn weakened the army and bureaucracy, and so encouraging more infiltration and forced settlement and thus into a downward spiral.<ref>See  Adrian Goldsworthy, ''How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower'' (2009)</ref>

Goldsworthy (2009) sees steady decline and rejects Heather's arguments that the later empire was prosperous or strong. The Persians and various barbarian tribes were not especially stronger, either in numbers or organization, than Rome. Instead Rome's greatest enemy was itself. The constant civil wars fought after Marcus Aurelius destabilized Roman society and weakened the borders, allowing otherwise weak enemies to exploit Roman instability.  Goldsworthy notes that senators were excluded from military command in ordder to strengthen the emperor, but this weakened the army. Tensions between the civil bureaucracy and the army, and the use of smaller and smaller units to prevent any opponent getting a power base reduced the empire's ability to quickly counter any foreign invasion. An increasing number of foreigners were allowed to occupy the land, thus depriving the West of needed tax revenue, which in turn weakened the army and bureaucracy, and so encouraging more infiltration and forced settlement and thus into a downward spiral.<ref>See  Adrian Goldsworthy, ''How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower'' (2009)</ref>

== The actual "Fall" ==

=== Fall ===

[[File:Rome-Barbarians2.jpg|thumb|560px|actual barbarian invasions 400-526 AD]]  

[[File:Rome-Barbarians2.jpg|thumb|560px|actual barbarian invasions 400-526 AD]]  

The actual "fall" of the Western Roman Empire is said to have occurred on September 4, 476 A.D. when [[Odoacer]], a barbarian part Hun general led a mutiny by most of the barbarian mercenaries in Orestes' army (the master general in Italy, and father of the Emperor whom he had placed on the throne the previous year after a coup).  Orestes was defeated at the [[Battle of Pavia]] on August 23 and captured and killed after a brief siege.  Odoacer deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] and seized control of Italy.  He did not take the title of Emperor, thus ending 500 years of Roman rule.<ref>Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 171</ref>

The actual "fall" of the Western Roman Empire is said to have occurred on September 4, 476 A.D. when [[Odoacer]], a barbarian part Hun general led a mutiny by most of the barbarian mercenaries in Orestes' army (the master general in Italy, and father of the Emperor whom he had placed on the throne the previous year after a coup).  Orestes was defeated at the [[Battle of Pavia]] on August 23 and captured and killed after a brief siege.  Odoacer deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] and seized control of Italy.  He did not take the title of Emperor, thus ending 500 years of Roman rule.<ref>Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, p. 171</ref>

== After "the Fall" ==

== Aftermath and the Eastern Empire ==

The Roman Empire continued with the Eastern (or [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) Empire until its fall in 1453 A.D. Despite the fact that the Eastern Empire shifted away from Roman culture as the [[Middle Ages]] progressed, it was the direct continuation of the Roman Empire, and was continued to be known and called by its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, who also continued to refer to themselves as Romans.<ref>Teall, John L. & Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. [https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire Byzantine Empire]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref name="Boundless">[https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-byzantine-empire-6/byzantium-the-new-rome-35/naming-of-the-byzantine-empire-134-13338/ Naming of the Byzantine Empire]. ''boundless.com''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> The terms "Eastern Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" are modern historiographical terms that were created after the fall of the empire in 1453.<ref name="Boundless"/>

The Roman Empire continued with the Eastern (or [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]) Empire until its fall in 1453 A.D. Despite the fact that the Eastern Empire shifted away from Roman culture as the [[Middle Ages]] progressed, it was the direct continuation of the Roman Empire, and was continued to be known and called by its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, who also continued to refer to themselves as Romans.<ref>Teall, John L. & Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. [https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire Byzantine Empire]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref><ref name="Boundless">[https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-byzantine-empire-6/byzantium-the-new-rome-35/naming-of-the-byzantine-empire-134-13338/ Naming of the Byzantine Empire]. ''boundless.com''. Retrieved September 9, 2016.</ref> The terms "Eastern Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" are modern historiographical terms that were created after the fall of the empire in 1453.<ref name="Boundless"/>