Changes

==Dutch wars==

==Dutch wars==

Charles fought very expensive naval wars with the Dutch, almost bankrupting the Crown; his fleet managed to seize New Netherlands, soon renamed after his brother as New York.

Charles fought very expensive naval wars with the Dutch, almost bankrupting the Crown; his fleet managed to seize New Netherland, soon renamed after his brother as New York.

After the restoration in 1660, the king cooperated with London-based merchants. He issued a series of anti-Dutch policies that reflected the mercantilist notion that weakening the rival was the way to wealth. Charles believed that advancing trade and shipping would strengthen the political and financial position of the restored monarchy. The merchants and chartered companies, such as the [[East India Company]], Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa(which later became the [[Royal African Company]]), and Levant Company, thought economic primacy could be seized by defeating the Dutch. A combination of English naval force and privateering would, they hoped, cripple the Dutch Republic and force the States General to agree to a favorable peace. The Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665–67, did not bring these results, however. Only some 450 Dutch merchantmen were captured instead of the 1,200-1,500 vessels taken during the First Anglo-Dutch War, 1652-54. In 1665 many Dutch ships were intercepted, and Dutch trade and industry declined. After the initial shock had worn off. Dutch traders took precautions and benefited from the absence of the English fleet, and the Dutch maritime trade recovered from 1666 onward. However, English commercial interests were hit much more severely, and by the end of the war Charles' regime faced virtual bankruptcy. English attempts to gain economic dominance through violence had failed.  

After the restoration in 1660, the king cooperated with London-based merchants. He issued a series of anti-Dutch policies that reflected the mercantilist notion that weakening the rival was the way to wealth. Charles believed that advancing trade and shipping would strengthen the political and financial position of the restored monarchy. The merchants and chartered companies, such as the [[East India Company]], Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa(which later became the [[Royal African Company]]), and Levant Company, thought economic primacy could be seized by defeating the Dutch. A combination of English naval force and privateering would, they hoped, cripple the Dutch Republic and force the States General to agree to a favorable peace. The Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665–67, did not bring these results, however. Only some 450 Dutch merchantmen were captured instead of the 1,200-1,500 vessels taken during the First Anglo-Dutch War, 1652-54. In 1665 many Dutch ships were intercepted, and Dutch trade and industry declined. After the initial shock had worn off. Dutch traders took precautions and benefited from the absence of the English fleet, and the Dutch maritime trade recovered from 1666 onward. However, English commercial interests were hit much more severely, and by the end of the war Charles' regime faced virtual bankruptcy. English attempts to gain economic dominance through violence had failed.  

===Historiography===

===Historiography===

* Dekrey, Gary S. "Between Revolutions: Re-appraising the Restoration in Britain," ''History Compass'' 2008 6(3): 738-773, advanced article reviewing ths historiography, reflecting the growing interest since 1980 in the politics and religion of the Restoration. Dekrey looks at the recent Restoration scholarship, provides an overview of the field, and offers suggestions about critical interpretive issues. He adopts a pan-British approach, seeking to find common patterns in the reigns of Charles II and James II in Scotland, Ireland, and England. He  traces the instability of the Restoration settlements to their coercive treatment of Protestant dissenters, and offers suggestions for developing a three-kingdom framework for the treatment of Protestant divisions from the 1640's through the Glorious Revolution. Dekrey agrees that the crisis of 1679-81 was a multifaceted restoration crisis rather than an exclusion crisis, and suggests also that in England the competition of Whigs and Tories marked a turning point in the development of more modern structures for political debate and discussion. Dekrey examines the question of whether Charles and James turned toward absolutism thereafter in the broader context of the emerging state. His article considers the Restoration as a transitional era between the 'long Reformation' and the 'long 18th century.'  

* Dekrey, Gary S. "Between Revolutions: Re-appraising the Restoration in Britain," ''History Compass'' 2008 6(3): 738-773, advanced article reviewing ths historiography, reflecting the growing interest since 1980 in the politics and religion of the Restoration. Dekrey looks at the recent Restoration scholarship, provides an overview of the field, and offers suggestions about critical interpretive issues. He adopts a pan-British approach, seeking to find common patterns in the reigns of Charles II and James II in Scotland, Ireland, and England. He  traces the instability of the Restoration settlements to their coercive treatment of Protestant dissenters, and offers suggestions for developing a three-kingdom framework for the treatment of Protestant divisions from the 1640s through the Glorious Revolution. Dekrey agrees that the crisis of 1679-81 was a multifaceted restoration crisis rather than an exclusion crisis, and suggests also that in England the competition of Whigs and Tories marked a turning point in the development of more modern structures for political debate and discussion. Dekrey examines the question of whether Charles and James turned toward absolutism thereafter in the broader context of the emerging state. His article considers the Restoration as a transitional era between the 'long Reformation' and the 'long 18th century.'  

* Goodlad, Graham. "Before the Glorious Revolution: The Making of Absolute Monarchy? Graham Goodlad Examines the Controversies Surrounding the Development of Royal Power under Charles II and James II," ''History Review,'' 2007  [http://www.questia.com/read/5022714365?title=Before%20the%20Glorious%20Revolution%3a%20The%20Making%20of%20Absolute%20Monarchy%3f%20Graham%20Goodlad%20Examines%20the%20Controversies%20Surrounding%20the%20Development%20of%20Royal%20Power%20under%20Charles%20II%20and%20James%20II online edition]

* Goodlad, Graham. "Before the Glorious Revolution: The Making of Absolute Monarchy? Graham Goodlad Examines the Controversies Surrounding the Development of Royal Power under Charles II and James II," ''History Review,'' 2007  [http://www.questia.com/read/5022714365?title=Before%20the%20Glorious%20Revolution%3a%20The%20Making%20of%20Absolute%20Monarchy%3f%20Graham%20Goodlad%20Examines%20the%20Controversies%20Surrounding%20the%20Development%20of%20Royal%20Power%20under%20Charles%20II%20and%20James%20II online edition]