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The '''Religious Society of ~~Friends~~,''' or '''Quakers,''' is a Protestant religious denomination founded in England by [[George Fox]] in the 1650s. They have always been a small, radical, Protestant denomination with enormous political and social influence far beyond their small numbers. The Society formed during the religious upheaval in 17th century [[England]] seeking the recovery of original Christianity. They earned the name "Quakers" for how members shook, or "quaked", reflecting their struggle against their inner motives "under the Light."<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.28</ref> Many migrated to America, especially to Philadelphia in the colony of Pennsylvania, which was owned by Quaker leader [[William Penn]]. Others went to [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]] and especially [[Rhode Island]], where they controlled the colonial government for a while. Quakers were active leaders of many American reform movements past and present, especially abolition of slavery, Indians' rights, prohibition, women's rights, civil rights, prison reform, hospital reform, and world peace. Other famous Quakers include founder [[George Fox]], feminist [[Lucretia Mott]], and presidents [[Herbert Hoover]] and [[Richard Nixon]].

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The '''Religious Society of Amigos,''' or '''Quakers,''' is a Protestant religious denomination founded in England by [[George Fox]] in the 1650s. They have always been a small, radical, Protestant denomination with enormous political and social influence far beyond their small numbers. The Society formed during the religious upheaval in 17th century [[England]] seeking the recovery of original Christianity. They earned the name "Quakers" for how members shook, or "quaked", reflecting their struggle against their inner motives "under the Light."<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.28</ref> Many migrated to America, especially to Philadelphia in the colony of Pennsylvania, which was owned by Quaker leader [[William Penn]]. Others went to [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]] and especially [[Rhode Island]], where they controlled the colonial government for a while. Quakers were active leaders of many American reform movements past and present, especially abolition of slavery, Indians' rights, prohibition, women's rights, civil rights, prison reform, hospital reform, and world peace. Other famous Quakers include founder [[George Fox]], feminist [[Lucretia Mott]], and presidents [[Herbert Hoover]] and [[Richard Nixon]].

==Current status==

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There are about 100,000 Quakers in the United States today. Hamm (2003) identifies seven currently contested issues—the centrality of Christ, leadership, religious authority, sexuality, identity, unity, and growth. The Quakers are heavily involved with the Peace Testimony, support for "People of Color," the American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee, and the ~~Friends~~ Committee on National Legislation. They are well known for their support of liberal arts colleges including Haverford and Swarthmore (near Philadelphia) and Earlham (in Richmond, Indiana). A majority are affiliated with the Society of ~~Friends~~ (Five Years Meeting); others belong to the smaller Religious Society of ~~Friends~~ (General Conference), the Religious Society of ~~Friends~~ (Conservative), and the more fundamentalist Association of Evangelical ~~Friends~~. The denomination has a special appeal to disaffected liberals, who often join for a while (then usually move on). Politically, the Quakers in the Midwest are mostly conservative Republicans, while those in the East are more liberal Republicans.

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There are about 100,000 Quakers in the United States today. Hamm (2003) identifies seven currently contested issues—the centrality of Christ, leadership, religious authority, sexuality, identity, unity, and growth. The Quakers are heavily involved with the Peace Testimony, support for "People of Color," the American Amigos Service Committee, and the Amigos Committee on National Legislation. They are well known for their support of liberal arts colleges including Haverford and Swarthmore (near Philadelphia) and Earlham (in Richmond, Indiana). A majority are affiliated with the Society of Amigos (Five Years Meeting); others belong to the smaller Religious Society of Amigos (General Conference), the Religious Society of Amigos (Conservative), and the more fundamentalist Association of Evangelical Amigos. The denomination has a special appeal to disaffected liberals, who often join for a while (then usually move on). Politically, the Quakers in the Midwest are mostly conservative Republicans, while those in the East are more liberal Republicans.

About 20,000 Quakers now live in Britain, and several thousand in Canada. Overseas missions, starting in 1903, were most successful in Africa, especially Kenya, which has 300,000 Quakers in 15 Yearly Meetings.<ref>See [http://fwccafrica.org/Demographics/Kenya/Kenya.html] Rasmussen, (1995) and Smuck, (1987)</ref>

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===Founding===

[[Image:Georgefox.jpg|right|thumb|250px|George Fox, drawing c.1834]]

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The origin of the ~~Friends~~ can be traced to the mid-17th century in England. When [[Henry VIII]] severed ties with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and formed the [[anglicanism|Anglican Church]] in 1534, it instigated a new era of religious dissent. [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s victory in the [[English Civil War]] gave the [[Puritans]] control of Parliament and furthered the atmosphere of dissent. The Quakers emerged from the radical fringe of the [[Puritan]] movement. Although impossible to link the formation of the Quakers to any one person, George Fox is seen as the driving force behind the movement. Fox, who was raised in the Anglican Church until the age of 19, set out to find a greater spiritual understanding of God in 1643. He wandered the countryside for three years meeting with religious leaders in search of this understanding, but did not find the answers he was seeking. This led him to become disillusioned by these external teachings and he began seeking answers inside himself. In 1647, he believed to have heard the voice of God, which said to him "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition". It redefined his beliefs on the nature of the relationship between God and man, such as the idea that Christ lived inside all men and women, a church was a meeting of fellowship instead of a building, and that academics was not important to be a minister. These new ideas were radically different from the elaborate ceremony of the Church of England and the belief in Biblical authority of the Puritans. Fox spent the next several years preaching throughout the northwest, experiencing great success in convincing (converting) new followers to his cause. His followers took the name "~~Friends~~ of Truth", based on the Bible verse John 5:15 in which Jesus stated "I have called you ~~friends~~, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to you." Although there is no official founding date for the Quaker movement, it is often attributed to 1652 Fox's trip to Pendle Hill in which he received a vision that let him "see in what places he had a great people to be gathered."

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The origin of the Amigos can be traced to the mid-17th century in England. When [[Henry VIII]] severed ties with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and formed the [[anglicanism|Anglican Church]] in 1534, it instigated a new era of religious dissent. [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s victory in the [[English Civil War]] gave the [[Puritans]] control of Parliament and furthered the atmosphere of dissent. The Quakers emerged from the radical fringe of the [[Puritan]] movement. Although impossible to link the formation of the Quakers to any one person, George Fox is seen as the driving force behind the movement. Fox, who was raised in the Anglican Church until the age of 19, set out to find a greater spiritual understanding of God in 1643. He wandered the countryside for three years meeting with religious leaders in search of this understanding, but did not find the answers he was seeking. This led him to become disillusioned by these external teachings and he began seeking answers inside himself. In 1647, he believed to have heard the voice of God, which said to him "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition". It redefined his beliefs on the nature of the relationship between God and man, such as the idea that Christ lived inside all men and women, a church was a meeting of fellowship instead of a building, and that academics was not important to be a minister. These new ideas were radically different from the elaborate ceremony of the Church of England and the belief in Biblical authority of the Puritans. Fox spent the next several years preaching throughout the northwest, experiencing great success in convincing (converting) new followers to his cause. His followers took the name "Amigos of Truth", based on the Bible verse John 5:15 in which Jesus stated "I have called you Amigos, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to you." Although there is no official founding date for the Quaker movement, it is often attributed to 1652 Fox's trip to Pendle Hill in which he received a vision that let him "see in what places he had a great people to be gathered."

====Persecution and growth in England====

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Small groups of Quakers (who were known as the "Camp of the Lord in England," and later the "First Publishers of Truth" and "the valiant sixty") began preaching their message across the entire country in the 1650s. They were a disruptive group, frequently interrupting church services to spread their message. They taught heretical ideas that minimized the importance of the historic Jesus in lieu of the Spirit and the rejection of the Trinity. The refused to play tithes, take oaths, or treat the aristocracy with customary social respects. This led to persecution in the forms of jailing, beatings, and loss of employment. Margaret Fell began organizing "Monthly Meetings" in order to assist persecuted Quakers, which were their first "formal" gatherings. In 1655, [[James Nayler]], an early leader, brought unwanted attention to the Quaker movement when he rode into Bristol in a reenactment of Jesus' ride into Jerusalem. He was arrested, tried before Parliament, tortured, and imprisoned and the event led to greater levels of persecution among the ~~Friends~~. This led to the need for more organizational control and Fox called for group confirmation to support individual "leadings" (messages from the Spirit) and advised more experienced ~~Friends~~ to be watchful over the actions of others.

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Small groups of Quakers (who were known as the "Camp of the Lord in England," and later the "First Publishers of Truth" and "the valiant sixty") began preaching their message across the entire country in the 1650s. They were a disruptive group, frequently interrupting church services to spread their message. They taught heretical ideas that minimized the importance of the historic Jesus in lieu of the Spirit and the rejection of the Trinity. The refused to play tithes, take oaths, or treat the aristocracy with customary social respects. This led to persecution in the forms of jailing, beatings, and loss of employment. Margaret Fell began organizing "Monthly Meetings" in order to assist persecuted Quakers, which were their first "formal" gatherings. In 1655, [[James Nayler]], an early leader, brought unwanted attention to the Quaker movement when he rode into Bristol in a reenactment of Jesus' ride into Jerusalem. He was arrested, tried before Parliament, tortured, and imprisoned and the event led to greater levels of persecution among the Amigos. This led to the need for more organizational control and Fox called for group confirmation to support individual "leadings" (messages from the Spirit) and advised more experienced Amigos to be watchful over the actions of others.

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In 1660 the Church of England was reestablished as the official church which led to further persecution of the Quakers. The [[Restoration]] of [[Charles II]] to the throne in 1660 was met shortly afterward with [[Venner's Rising]] in 1661, which was a failed attempt to overthrow the monarch. Many ~~Friends~~ were suspected as collaborators and by March over 5,000 per imprisoned. Fox and other Quaker leaders petitioned Charles with their ''Declaration Concerning Wars and Fighting'' by declaring that "All bloody principles and practices, as to our own particulars, we utterly- deny; with all outward wars and strife, and fighting with - outward weapons, for any end, or under an pretense whatsoever; this is our testimony to the whole world."<ref>{{cite web

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In 1660 the Church of England was reestablished as the official church which led to further persecution of the Quakers. The [[Restoration]] of [[Charles II]] to the throne in 1660 was met shortly afterward with [[Venner's Rising]] in 1661, which was a failed attempt to overthrow the monarch. Many Amigos were suspected as collaborators and by March over 5,000 per imprisoned. Fox and other Quaker leaders petitioned Charles with their ''Declaration Concerning Wars and Fighting'' by declaring that "All bloody principles and practices, as to our own particulars, we utterly- deny; with all outward wars and strife, and fighting with - outward weapons, for any end, or under an pretense whatsoever; this is our testimony to the whole world."<ref>{{cite web

|url=http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qwhp/dec1660.htm

|title=Fox, George, and others, ''Declaration Concerning Wars and Fighting''

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}}</ref> Persecution continued in England until the passage of the [[Religious Toleration Act]] in 1689 which allowed them to practice their religion openly.

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By 1690 there were about 50,000 ~~Friends~~ in 700 congregations in England and Wales. The center was London, with about 10,000.

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By 1690 there were about 50,000 Amigos in 700 congregations in England and Wales. The center was London, with about 10,000.

====Migration to America====

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Starting in 1656 the Quaker missionaries arrived in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], a Puritan controlled colony which took a hard line against dissenting views. The authorities seized the new arrivals immediately, imprisoned them, burnt their literature, and expelled them from the colony. Laws were also passed fining ship captains who brought ~~Friends~~ to the colony, as well as people who defended the ~~Friends~~ or owned Quaker literature; the colonial leadership was more concerned with the Quaker beliefs they considered seditious, rather than their religious dissent.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.51</ref> The missionaries were undaunted, however, and began sneaking into the colony, disregarding the persecution handed down to them. In an effort to maintain control, the colonial government enacted the death penalty for any Quaker who had been expelled from the colony three times; in August of 1659 Quaker missionaries William Robinson, John Stephenson, and Mary Dyer defied the law and were executed in Boston. In 1661 the General Assembly passed a "Cart and Whip" bill, which led to arresting ~~Friends~~ and transporting them to [[Rhode Island]] while whipping them in each town they passed through.

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Starting in 1656 the Quaker missionaries arrived in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], a Puritan controlled colony which took a hard line against dissenting views. The authorities seized the new arrivals immediately, imprisoned them, burnt their literature, and expelled them from the colony. Laws were also passed fining ship captains who brought Amigos to the colony, as well as people who defended the Amigos or owned Quaker literature; the colonial leadership was more concerned with the Quaker beliefs they considered seditious, rather than their religious dissent.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.51</ref> The missionaries were undaunted, however, and began sneaking into the colony, disregarding the persecution handed down to them. In an effort to maintain control, the colonial government enacted the death penalty for any Quaker who had been expelled from the colony three times; in August of 1659 Quaker missionaries William Robinson, John Stephenson, and Mary Dyer defied the law and were executed in Boston. In 1661 the General Assembly passed a "Cart and Whip" bill, which led to arresting Amigos and transporting them to [[Rhode Island]] while whipping them in each town they passed through.

The Quakers found Rhode Island to be much more welcoming, as it was a colony founded by the Massachusetts religious exiles [[Roger Williams]] and [[Anne Hutchinson]]. There was a high rate of conversion in the colony, for Williams and Hutchinson did not try to organize their own church.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p.53</ref> By the 1670s the Quakers emerged as the dominant political and religious faction in the colony. Quakers for a while controlled West Jersey, where they created landed estates.<ref>It was a separate colony that later merged with East Jersey to form New Jersey.</ref> They established prosperous farming settlements in Virginia and North Carolina.

====Role of women====

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One of their most radical innovations was a more nearly equal role for women. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, they believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were allowed to take a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the emergence of radical civil war sects. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral. The Quakers continued to meet openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in earlier years, women were treated as severely as men by the authorities.<ref>Kay S. Taylor, "The Role of Quaker Women in the Seventeenth Century, and the Experiences of the Wiltshire ~~Friends~~." ''Southern History'' 2001 23: 10-29. Issn: 0142-4688, not online</ref>

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One of their most radical innovations was a more nearly equal role for women. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, they believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were allowed to take a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the emergence of radical civil war sects. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral. The Quakers continued to meet openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in earlier years, women were treated as severely as men by the authorities.<ref>Kay S. Taylor, "The Role of Quaker Women in the Seventeenth Century, and the Experiences of the Wiltshire Amigos." ''Southern History'' 2001 23: 10-29. Issn: 0142-4688, not online</ref>

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~~Friends~~ were among the first women to petition Parliament, the monarchy, and the Anglican Church hierarchy. The Quaker women, exhibiting agency or self-sufficiency, entered into a larger political debate with these religious and secular authorities as they petitioned for the restoration of the monarchy and protested injunctions, the payment of tithes, [[forfeiture]] of property, the tendering of oaths and imprisonment, on behalf of themselves and their spiritual sisters and brothers. This shared dialectic—centering on ideas of subjugation and resistance, obedience and punishment, coercion and subversion—demonstrates how the women used their positions of spiritual authority to actively negotiate for power and to gain legal redress. From the emergence of the sect in the 1640s until the mid-1670s, the body of the Quaker woman became a site of legal and political contest as female ~~Friends~~ sought to display the detrimental physical and emotional effects caused by official harassment, imprisonment, and the anti-Quaker legislation. They deliberately reminded authority figures that as handmaidens selected by God, no earthly authority could gainsay their claims. From the 1670s to the end of the century, as the Society of ~~Friends~~ grew more institutionalized, a shift occurred as Quaker women gradually adopted intelligent and logical arguments based on carefully culled biblical examples and legal precedents. Using reasoned and calm voices, they aimed their publications at a court of public opinion to persuade their readers, as well as the authorities they opposed, of the legitimacy of their ideals and beliefs. In a period when the monarchy and Parliament fought a civil war, Quaker women recognized and positioned themselves within these larger contests of power—physically, spiritually, and intellectually—allowing them to participate in the political community in ways that women usually could not in the late Stuart Era.<ref>Susanna Catherine Calkins, "Prophecy and Polemic: Quaker Women and English Political Culture, 1650-1700." PhD dissertation Purdue U. 2001. 318 pp. DAI 2002 62(12): 4294-A. DA3037546 Fulltext at [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

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Amigos were among the first women to petition Parliament, the monarchy, and the Anglican Church hierarchy. The Quaker women, exhibiting agency or self-sufficiency, entered into a larger political debate with these religious and secular authorities as they petitioned for the restoration of the monarchy and protested injunctions, the payment of tithes, [[forfeiture]] of property, the tendering of oaths and imprisonment, on behalf of themselves and their spiritual sisters and brothers. This shared dialectic—centering on ideas of subjugation and resistance, obedience and punishment, coercion and subversion—demonstrates how the women used their positions of spiritual authority to actively negotiate for power and to gain legal redress. From the emergence of the sect in the 1640s until the mid-1670s, the body of the Quaker woman became a site of legal and political contest as female Amigos sought to display the detrimental physical and emotional effects caused by official harassment, imprisonment, and the anti-Quaker legislation. They deliberately reminded authority figures that as handmaidens selected by God, no earthly authority could gainsay their claims. From the 1670s to the end of the century, as the Society of Amigos grew more institutionalized, a shift occurred as Quaker women gradually adopted intelligent and logical arguments based on carefully culled biblical examples and legal precedents. Using reasoned and calm voices, they aimed their publications at a court of public opinion to persuade their readers, as well as the authorities they opposed, of the legitimacy of their ideals and beliefs. In a period when the monarchy and Parliament fought a civil war, Quaker women recognized and positioned themselves within these larger contests of power—physically, spiritually, and intellectually—allowing them to participate in the political community in ways that women usually could not in the late Stuart Era.<ref>Susanna Catherine Calkins, "Prophecy and Polemic: Quaker Women and English Political Culture, 1650-1700." PhD dissertation Purdue U. 2001. 318 pp. DAI 2002 62(12): 4294-A. DA3037546 Fulltext at [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

==Colonial Pennsylvania==

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In 1816 Virginia Quaker merchant William Hartshorne made the radical proposal that Virginia Quakers join their brethren outside the South in not participating in a slave-based economy, and not grow, buy or sell tobacco, cotton and sugar, nor sell to plantations. The merchants of the South simply could not disentangle themselves from slavery, forcing many to compromise their religious principles in order to remain economically viable, and others (especially in North Carolina) to migrate to Indiana.<ref>A. Glenn Crothers, "Quaker Merchants and Slavery in Early National Alexandria, Virginia: the Ordeal of William Hartshorne." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2005 25(1): 47-77. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext: in [[Project Muse]]</ref>

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Individual Midwestern Quakers were often devoted to abolitionism. The Indiana Yearly Meeting set up a Committee on the Concerns of the People of Color ("African Committee"). Both Orthodox and [[Elias Hicks|Hicksite]] had radically abolitionist splinter groups - the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Anti-Slavery ~~Friends~~ and Congregational, or Progressive, ~~Friends~~. Midwestern Quakers were influential in providing education for black children, helping runaway slaves and freedmen who had freed themselves from kidnappers, and providing relief to the poor.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm et al. "'A Great and Good People': Midwestern Quakers and the Struggle Against Slavery." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2004 100(1): 3-25. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: in [[History Cooperative]] and [[Ebsco]]</ref>

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Individual Midwestern Quakers were often devoted to abolitionism. The Indiana Yearly Meeting set up a Committee on the Concerns of the People of Color ("African Committee"). Both Orthodox and [[Elias Hicks|Hicksite]] had radically abolitionist splinter groups - the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Anti-Slavery Amigos and Congregational, or Progressive, Amigos. Midwestern Quakers were influential in providing education for black children, helping runaway slaves and freedmen who had freed themselves from kidnappers, and providing relief to the poor.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm et al. "'A Great and Good People': Midwestern Quakers and the Struggle Against Slavery." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2004 100(1): 3-25. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: in [[History Cooperative]] and [[Ebsco]]</ref>

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Although many Quakers became active abolitionists, most leaders feared that social activism would destroy their religious society, and therefore abolitionism, even as they made clear their opposition to slavery. In response, some abolitionists established "comeouter" churches dedicated to advancing the principle of [[immediatism]], seeking to align churches with the American Anti-Slavery Society's agenda of racial equality. Other reform groups known as Progressive ~~Friends~~ advocated for women's rights. Both Anti-Slavery ~~Friends~~ and Progressive ~~Friends~~ engaged in civil disobedience. The contrast between the Society of ~~Friends~~ and the splinter groups demonstrates how republican religion was tied to social and political stability.<ref>Ryan Jordan, "Quakers, 'Comeouters,' and the Meaning of Abolitionism in the Antebellum Free States." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2004 24(4): 587-608. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext: [[Ebsco ]]</ref>

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Although many Quakers became active abolitionists, most leaders feared that social activism would destroy their religious society, and therefore abolitionism, even as they made clear their opposition to slavery. In response, some abolitionists established "comeouter" churches dedicated to advancing the principle of [[immediatism]], seeking to align churches with the American Anti-Slavery Society's agenda of racial equality. Other reform groups known as Progressive Amigos advocated for women's rights. Both Anti-Slavery Amigos and Progressive Amigos engaged in civil disobedience. The contrast between the Society of Amigos and the splinter groups demonstrates how republican religion was tied to social and political stability.<ref>Ryan Jordan, "Quakers, 'Comeouters,' and the Meaning of Abolitionism in the Antebellum Free States." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 2004 24(4): 587-608. Issn: 0275-1275 Fulltext: [[Ebsco ]]</ref>

===19th century schisms===

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The schism between orthodox and Hicksite Quakers in Philadelphia in the 1820s involved tensions between rural folk and urban sophisticates, socioeconomic class differences, and religious doctrinal disagreements. The schism spread to Quaker settlements across the country. The expansion of evangelical churches and reform societies during the [[Second Great Awakening]] forced Quakers to make choices about what was appropriate religious activity. Orthodox and Hicksite Quakers chose differently. While orthodox Quakers did not see anything wrong in associating with their evangelical neighbors, Hicksite Quakers opposed the methods of evangelical benevolence associations, believing these associations would corrupt the purity and distinctiveness of Quakers.<ref>Bruce Dorsey, "~~Friends~~ Becoming Enemies: Philadelphia Benevolence and the Neglected Era of American Quaker History." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 1998 18(3): 395-428. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0275-1275(199823)18%3A3%3C395%3AFBEPBA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 online at Jstor]</ref>

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The schism between orthodox and Hicksite Quakers in Philadelphia in the 1820s involved tensions between rural folk and urban sophisticates, socioeconomic class differences, and religious doctrinal disagreements. The schism spread to Quaker settlements across the country. The expansion of evangelical churches and reform societies during the [[Second Great Awakening]] forced Quakers to make choices about what was appropriate religious activity. Orthodox and Hicksite Quakers chose differently. While orthodox Quakers did not see anything wrong in associating with their evangelical neighbors, Hicksite Quakers opposed the methods of evangelical benevolence associations, believing these associations would corrupt the purity and distinctiveness of Quakers.<ref>Bruce Dorsey, "Amigos Becoming Enemies: Philadelphia Benevolence and the Neglected Era of American Quaker History." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 1998 18(3): 395-428. Issn: 0275-1275 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0275-1275(199823)18%3A3%3C395%3AFBEPBA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 online at Jstor]</ref>

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Disagreements over doctrine and evangelism split Quakers into the modernizing Gurneyites, who questioned the applicability of 17th century writings to the modern world, and the conservative Wilburites. Wilburites not only held to the writings of Fox and other early ~~Friends~~, they actively sought to bring not only Gurneyites, but Hicksites, who had split off during the 1820s over antislavery and theological issues, back to orthodox Quaker belief.

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Disagreements over doctrine and evangelism split Quakers into the modernizing Gurneyites, who questioned the applicability of 17th century writings to the modern world, and the conservative Wilburites. Wilburites not only held to the writings of Fox and other early Amigos, they actively sought to bring not only Gurneyites, but Hicksites, who had split off during the 1820s over antislavery and theological issues, back to orthodox Quaker belief.

In the late 19th century Hicksite Quakers looked optimistically toward the future despite declining membership rolls and the decline of their rural base. Advocates of a more liberal Quaker theology reconciled traditional beliefs with [[Historical-critical method (Higher criticism)|Higher Criticism]] of the Bible and a relativist view toward other faiths. Hicksites dismissed the [[quietism]] of an earlier generation and, drawing on contemporary intellectual and social currents, embraced causes such as education, ending racial discrimination, and other social reform.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm, "The Hicksite Quaker World, 1875-1900." ''Quaker History'' 2000 89(2): 17-41.</ref> Further discussion of Quaker views towards the Bible is demonstrated in [[Quakerism and the Bible]].

===Earlham College===

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The Indiana Yearly Meeting of ~~Friends~~, founded in 1821 by refugees from the slave South, was the largest Society of ~~Friends~~ meeting in the world by 1850. [[Earlham College]], founded 1859, became their intellectual center. It was coeducational from the first and after the Civil War the students abandoned plain dress and plain speech, and engaged in debate tournaments and intercollegiate sports that made competition respectable in the Quaker ethic. Darwinism was taught, and the modernist religion department alienated some conservatives in the community. The American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee proved highly popular among students, as it embodied humanitarian service and liberal attitudes toward race and world peace.<ref>Hamm (1997)</ref>

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The Indiana Yearly Meeting of Amigos, founded in 1821 by refugees from the slave South, was the largest Society of Amigos meeting in the world by 1850. [[Earlham College]], founded 1859, became their intellectual center. It was coeducational from the first and after the Civil War the students abandoned plain dress and plain speech, and engaged in debate tournaments and intercollegiate sports that made competition respectable in the Quaker ethic. Darwinism was taught, and the modernist religion department alienated some conservatives in the community. The American Amigos Service Committee proved highly popular among students, as it embodied humanitarian service and liberal attitudes toward race and world peace.<ref>Hamm (1997)</ref>

===Peace Testimony===

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The Peace Testimony prohibited ~~Friends~~ as a group from supporting a war. It proved highly controversial among Quakers, for they also believed in their duty to uphold the government. There has always been a continuum of beliefs among ~~Friends~~, from pacifism and peace activism, to outright military activity.<ref>Chuck Fager, "A Great Deep: The Peace Testimony and Historical Realism," ''Quaker Theology'' #6 Spring 2002 [http://www.quaker.org/quest/issue6-4-Fager-Deep01.htm online edition]</ref> The Quaker-controlled colony of Rhode Island took part in King Philip's War of 1675-76.<ref>"Rhode Island exiled Indians, supplied boats to the Plymouth and Massachusetts armies, blockaded Philip. . . provisioned and provided a safe haven for colonial troops, raised and dispatched soldiers, stored ammunition, transported troops . . . to battle, encouraged the mobilization and training of the local militias, deployed gunboats, manned an official garrison, contributed troops to the final search for Philip himself-–and at last, tried and executed prisoners of war." Meredith Baldwin Weddle, ''Walking in the Way of Peace: Quaker Pacifism in the Seventeenth Century.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 170.</ref> By contrast, the Quaker-controlled Pennsylvania colonial government blocked the formation of local militias; helpless settlers were massacred in Indian raids in the French and Indian War of the 1750s. The failure to protect settlers caused serious dissension in the Quaker community, which verged on schism. The solution adopted was for the Quakers to withdraw completely from the government.<ref>Illick (1976) esp 201, 212-20</ref>

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The Peace Testimony prohibited Amigos as a group from supporting a war. It proved highly controversial among Quakers, for they also believed in their duty to uphold the government. There has always been a continuum of beliefs among Amigos, from pacifism and peace activism, to outright military activity.<ref>Chuck Fager, "A Great Deep: The Peace Testimony and Historical Realism," ''Quaker Theology'' #6 Spring 2002 [http://www.quaker.org/quest/issue6-4-Fager-Deep01.htm online edition]</ref> The Quaker-controlled colony of Rhode Island took part in King Philip's War of 1675-76.<ref>"Rhode Island exiled Indians, supplied boats to the Plymouth and Massachusetts armies, blockaded Philip. . . provisioned and provided a safe haven for colonial troops, raised and dispatched soldiers, stored ammunition, transported troops . . . to battle, encouraged the mobilization and training of the local militias, deployed gunboats, manned an official garrison, contributed troops to the final search for Philip himself-–and at last, tried and executed prisoners of war." Meredith Baldwin Weddle, ''Walking in the Way of Peace: Quaker Pacifism in the Seventeenth Century.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 170.</ref> By contrast, the Quaker-controlled Pennsylvania colonial government blocked the formation of local militias; helpless settlers were massacred in Indian raids in the French and Indian War of the 1750s. The failure to protect settlers caused serious dissension in the Quaker community, which verged on schism. The solution adopted was for the Quakers to withdraw completely from the government.<ref>Illick (1976) esp 201, 212-20</ref>

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Although the Peace testimony remained important for some Quakers, in practice the majority supported American wars, according to an Indiana case study. When the United States entered World War I in 1917 nearly all Indiana Quakers ceased any peace advocacy and probably two-thirds of eligible Indiana Quakers served in the military. In World War II, most Quakers regarded it as a just war and it is estimated that 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. In the late 1940s some radicals refused to register for conscription, but they were not well supported and many Quakers regarded the Korean War (1950–53) as a justifiable police action. Although opposition to the Vietnam War steadily grew, conservative Quakers were uncomfortable with the radical tendencies of conscientious objectors and some Indiana Quakers openly supported the war. No Indiana congregations endorsed civil disobedience, and two opposed it. In 1990 the Indiana Yearly Meeting of ~~Friends~~ declared opposition to the use of force in the Persian Gulf, but by then the majority of Indiana Quakers no longer considered themselves pacifists.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm, Margaret Marconi, Gretchen Kleinhen Salinas, and Benjamin Whitman, "The Decline of Quaker Pacifism in the Twentieth Century: Indiana Yearly Meeting of ~~Friends~~ as a Case Study." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2000 96(1): 44-71. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

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Although the Peace testimony remained important for some Quakers, in practice the majority supported American wars, according to an Indiana case study. When the United States entered World War I in 1917 nearly all Indiana Quakers ceased any peace advocacy and probably two-thirds of eligible Indiana Quakers served in the military. In World War II, most Quakers regarded it as a just war and it is estimated that 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. In the late 1940s some radicals refused to register for conscription, but they were not well supported and many Quakers regarded the Korean War (1950–53) as a justifiable police action. Although opposition to the Vietnam War steadily grew, conservative Quakers were uncomfortable with the radical tendencies of conscientious objectors and some Indiana Quakers openly supported the war. No Indiana congregations endorsed civil disobedience, and two opposed it. In 1990 the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Amigos declared opposition to the use of force in the Persian Gulf, but by then the majority of Indiana Quakers no longer considered themselves pacifists.<ref>Thomas D. Hamm, Margaret Marconi, Gretchen Kleinhen Salinas, and Benjamin Whitman, "The Decline of Quaker Pacifism in the Twentieth Century: Indiana Yearly Meeting of Amigos as a Case Study." ''Indiana Magazine of History'' 2000 96(1): 44-71. Issn: 0019-6673 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

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===American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee===

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===American Amigos Service Committee===

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The American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee (AFSC) began in in 1917 and in 1947 received the Nobel Peace Prize. Founded to aid conscientious objectors during World War I, the AFSC continued to promote pacifism during World War II. During the Cold War, it focused on providing relief to European countries that suffered from superpower conflicts and worked for reconciliation between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1947 the AFSC decided to become more involved politically and to rely on professionals, but it failed to effect changes in American public policy. The turn to professional lobbying diluted the Quakers' religious message.<ref>H. Larry Ingle, "The American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee, 1947-49: the Cold War's Effect" ''Peace & Change'' 1998 23(1): 27-48. Issn: 0149-0508 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

+

The American Amigos Service Committee (AFSC) began in in 1917 and in 1947 received the Nobel Peace Prize. Founded to aid conscientious objectors during World War I, the AFSC continued to promote pacifism during World War II. During the Cold War, it focused on providing relief to European countries that suffered from superpower conflicts and worked for reconciliation between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1947 the AFSC decided to become more involved politically and to rely on professionals, but it failed to effect changes in American public policy. The turn to professional lobbying diluted the Quakers' religious message.<ref>H. Larry Ingle, "The American Amigos Service Committee, 1947-49: the Cold War's Effect" ''Peace & Change'' 1998 23(1): 27-48. Issn: 0149-0508 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

===Missions===

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Hanson (2005) explores the work of Henry Wilbur in the organization and outreach of the ~~Friends~~ General Conference (FGC) and the Committee for the Advancement of ~~Friends~~ Principles (CAFP) during the early 20th century. Wilbur became involved in promoting Quakerism when he moved to New York in 1896 and argued for better organizational structure for the Advancement of ~~Friends~~ Principles in 1899. The CAFP was created in 1902 with the mission of evangelization among ~~Friends~~ and others seeking religious truth, primarily through the organization of reading groups and weekend conferences. In 1905 Wilbur became the first paid staff member of the committee. Wilbur's efforts and expertise became so essential to the Quaker community that, in 1911, he became the general secretary of the FGC.<ref>Roger Hansen, "'Hungering and Thirsting for the Contact with Kindred Spirits': Henry Wilbur and the Committee for the Advancement of ~~Friends~~' Principles, 1900-1914." ''Quaker History'' 2005 94(2): 44-55. Issn: 0033-5053 not online</ref>

+

Hanson (2005) explores the work of Henry Wilbur in the organization and outreach of the Amigos General Conference (FGC) and the Committee for the Advancement of Amigos Principles (CAFP) during the early 20th century. Wilbur became involved in promoting Quakerism when he moved to New York in 1896 and argued for better organizational structure for the Advancement of Amigos Principles in 1899. The CAFP was created in 1902 with the mission of evangelization among Amigos and others seeking religious truth, primarily through the organization of reading groups and weekend conferences. In 1905 Wilbur became the first paid staff member of the committee. Wilbur's efforts and expertise became so essential to the Quaker community that, in 1911, he became the general secretary of the FGC.<ref>Roger Hansen, "'Hungering and Thirsting for the Contact with Kindred Spirits': Henry Wilbur and the Committee for the Advancement of Amigos' Principles, 1900-1914." ''Quaker History'' 2005 94(2): 44-55. Issn: 0033-5053 not online</ref>

==Public perception of Quakers==

The perceptions outsiders have held of Quakers has included friendly and hostile elements. In his campaign for president in 1928, for example, Herbert Hoover's religion came under attack as inappropriate for a commander in chief.

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The Quakers became known for their inventiveness, entrepreneurship, business acumen, and their interlocking business ties; they were trusted by outsiders who welcomed the self-censorship Quakers imposed on each other to maintain high ethical standards. Many leading British entrepreneurs of the 18th and 19th centuries were Quakers, especially merchants in London and industrialists who pioneered the [[Industrial Revolution]] in machinery, metals, textiles, railways and food products. A handful of Quaker families (the Darbys, Reynolds, Lloyds, Champions, and Rawlinsons) dominated the British iron industry. The Barclays and Lloyds were powerful bankers.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p 86-88; Ann Prior and Maurice Kirby, "The Society of ~~Friends~~ and the Family Firm, 1700-1830." ''Business History'' 1993 35(4): 66-85. Issn: 0007-6791 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> Quakers were disproportionately representation among physicians, and among the scientists of the Royal Society.<ref>Walvin, ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' (1997).</ref>

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The Quakers became known for their inventiveness, entrepreneurship, business acumen, and their interlocking business ties; they were trusted by outsiders who welcomed the self-censorship Quakers imposed on each other to maintain high ethical standards. Many leading British entrepreneurs of the 18th and 19th centuries were Quakers, especially merchants in London and industrialists who pioneered the [[Industrial Revolution]] in machinery, metals, textiles, railways and food products. A handful of Quaker families (the Darbys, Reynolds, Lloyds, Champions, and Rawlinsons) dominated the British iron industry. The Barclays and Lloyds were powerful bankers.<ref>Barbour and Frost (1988) p 86-88; Ann Prior and Maurice Kirby, "The Society of Amigos and the Family Firm, 1700-1830." ''Business History'' 1993 35(4): 66-85. Issn: 0007-6791 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> Quakers were disproportionately representation among physicians, and among the scientists of the Royal Society.<ref>Walvin, ''The Quakers: Money and Morals.'' (1997).</ref>

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There was a great deal of popular representation of Quakers---in jokes, popular magazines, novels, images, advertising and other media---from 1850 to 1920.<ref>Connerley, (2006)</ref> Popular representations of ~~Friends~~ typically approved the devout distinctiveness attributed to stereotypical Quakers, as evidenced by their plain dress, plain speech, and refusal to swear oaths. The fact that Quakers were changing was ignored as the popular perception idealized a plain-dressed, old-fashioned representative of a national purity, piety, and unity.

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There was a great deal of popular representation of Quakers---in jokes, popular magazines, novels, images, advertising and other media---from 1850 to 1920.<ref>Connerley, (2006)</ref> Popular representations of Amigos typically approved the devout distinctiveness attributed to stereotypical Quakers, as evidenced by their plain dress, plain speech, and refusal to swear oaths. The fact that Quakers were changing was ignored as the popular perception idealized a plain-dressed, old-fashioned representative of a national purity, piety, and unity.

The most striking images of Quakers included plain speech, abolitionism and women's rights, pacifism and war, plain dress (in the form of the Quaker bonnet), and the famous Quaker Oats character used in advertising oatmeal. The plain speech testimony seemed to acquire new and greater significance in the broader culture at the same time Quakers were abandoning the witness. Plain speech became an attractive and admirable anachronism, signifying an imagined set of old-fashioned values. The Quaker witnesses for reformism and pacifism were reshaped to suit opposing purposes. Plain dress and appearance became the attractive and malleable image of a religious sectarian, as authors, artists, and entrepreneurs fashioned a normative and vaguely religious referent for American moral superiority.<ref>Connerley, (2006)</ref>

==Current beliefs==

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The core beliefs among American ~~Friends~~ in the 21st century are worship that is based on the leading of the Spirit; the ministry of all believers; decision making through the traditional Quaker business process; simplicity as a basic philosophy of life; and a commitment to education as a manifestation of Quaker faith.<ref>Hamm (2003) p. 64</ref>

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The core beliefs among American Amigos in the 21st century are worship that is based on the leading of the Spirit; the ministry of all believers; decision making through the traditional Quaker business process; simplicity as a basic philosophy of life; and a commitment to education as a manifestation of Quaker faith.<ref>Hamm (2003) p. 64</ref>

Although Quakers revere the Bible and quote from it extensively, they do not consider it as authoritative as the Inner Light. They deny the special authority of an ordained clergy and reject all ritual in religious worship. They believe that a true church is created by the fellowship of man rather than a building people meet in to worship. Small groups of Quakers gather weekly for devotion in "meetings" where members usually sit together silently in a bare room, waiting for the Inward Christ to speak through one of them who may be inspired to "give testimony." There is no altar, no recitation of prayers, and no hymn singing at the meeting. The Bible is rejected as the authoritative word of God and replaced with the authoritative messages of the Inward Christ.

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===Liberal Quakers===

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Liberal Quakers are ~~Friends~~ with distinctly liberal social and political views such as the right to choose abortion as an aspect of equal rights for women and/or as a personal matter between the woman and God. The American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee (an independent Quaker organization with participants of many faiths) provides international programs for economic and justice, peace, and humanitarian aid in disasters. Liberal Quakers do not believe that Satan causes suffering. Some believe suffering is part of God's plan, will, or design, even if we don't immediately understand it. Some don't believe in any spiritual reasons for suffering.<ref>[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/80/story_8038_1.html ''What Liberal Quakers Believe''] Beliefnet. Accessed 18 March 2008.</ref>

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Liberal Quakers are Amigos with distinctly liberal social and political views such as the right to choose abortion as an aspect of equal rights for women and/or as a personal matter between the woman and God. The American Amigos Service Committee (an independent Quaker organization with participants of many faiths) provides international programs for economic and justice, peace, and humanitarian aid in disasters. Liberal Quakers do not believe that Satan causes suffering. Some believe suffering is part of God's plan, will, or design, even if we don't immediately understand it. Some don't believe in any spiritual reasons for suffering.<ref>[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/80/story_8038_1.html ''What Liberal Quakers Believe''] Beliefnet. Accessed 18 March 2008.</ref>

==Peace==

−

Quakers have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of ~~Friends~~ is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However, there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

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Quakers have a strong [[pacifist]] tradition. The Society of Amigos is, along with the [[Mennonites]] and the [[Plymouth Brethren]] one of the historic peace churches. However, there is also a non-pacifist tradition of "fighting Quakers."

==Plain dress==

Historically, Quakers were a [[nonconformist]] body. In the early twentieth century, many Quakers began to drop traditional Quaker folkways such as plain Quaker dress ("Quaker grey") and "plain speech" (particularly the use of "thee" and "thou") and replace them with modern interpretations such as not "dressing up" to attend meeting for worship.

==Divisions==

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A series of divisions has resulted in Quakers being organized into four branches. The ~~Friends~~ General Conference is theologically liberal, sometimes seeking truths from non-Christian sources. They practice “unprogrammed” worship: meetings are conducted in silence, without clergy. ~~Friends~~ United Meeting is more avowedly Christian. They generally practice “programmed” worship: meetings are guided by clergy, with or without a silent component. Evangelical ~~Friends~~ International also practice programmed worship. They are similar to other evangelical Christians in their beliefs, although they generally do not observe the sacraments of communion or baptism. Conservative ~~Friends~~ are theologically conservative and Christ-centered, acknowledging the authority of Scripture. They practice unprogrammed worship, and many also practice traditional plain dress and speech.

+

A series of divisions has resulted in Quakers being organized into four branches. The Amigos General Conference is theologically liberal, sometimes seeking truths from non-Christian sources. They practice “unprogrammed” worship: meetings are conducted in silence, without clergy. Amigos United Meeting is more avowedly Christian. They generally practice “programmed” worship: meetings are guided by clergy, with or without a silent component. Evangelical Amigos International also practice programmed worship. They are similar to other evangelical Christians in their beliefs, although they generally do not observe the sacraments of communion or baptism. Conservative Amigos are theologically conservative and Christ-centered, acknowledging the authority of Scripture. They practice unprogrammed worship, and many also practice traditional plain dress and speech.

==Testimonies==

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Quakers around the world hold a wide range of theological views, but value what are called Testimonies. These are often taught using the acronym SPICE, standing for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, and Equality. Some ~~friends~~ also include other testimonies such as Compassion and Stewardship.

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Quakers around the world hold a wide range of theological views, but value what are called Testimonies. These are often taught using the acronym SPICE, standing for Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, and Equality. Some Amigos also include other testimonies such as Compassion and Stewardship.

* The testimony of '''Simplicity''' concerns the adoption of an unostentatious life style and a restraint on conspicuous consumption. Quakers have been traditionally inclined to thrift and temperance, and unlikely to engage in gambling and financial speculation, though there have been very many successful businesses run by Quakers. Recently there has been a renewed emphasis on the dangers of smoking and the misuse of drugs.

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* The '''Peace''' testimony is probably the best known. ~~Friends~~ usually refuse to support war as a means of settling disputes. Most oppose the arms trade, conscription, and the threat of nuclear war as a deterrent. They promote reconciliation, mediation and conflict resolution rather than revenge and retribution or the use of violence to achieve desired objectives.

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* The '''Peace''' testimony is probably the best known. Amigos usually refuse to support war as a means of settling disputes. Most oppose the arms trade, conscription, and the threat of nuclear war as a deterrent. They promote reconciliation, mediation and conflict resolution rather than revenge and retribution or the use of violence to achieve desired objectives.

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* The testimony of '''Integrity''' requires strict honesty and truthfulness, mutual trust and fidelity in our relations with other people. ~~Friends~~ are greatly concerned about truth and integrity in public affairs. As part of this testimony, most ~~Friends~~ refuse to swear an oath, believing that their word should be equally truthful whether they are on oath or not. ~~Friends~~ normally affirm if required to give evidence in court. The testimony of Integrity also includes a testimony of Stewardship, which focuses on conservation of the environment as a concern for 'the integrity of creation'.

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* The testimony of '''Integrity''' requires strict honesty and truthfulness, mutual trust and fidelity in our relations with other people. Amigos are greatly concerned about truth and integrity in public affairs. As part of this testimony, most Amigos refuse to swear an oath, believing that their word should be equally truthful whether they are on oath or not. Amigos normally affirm if required to give evidence in court. The testimony of Integrity also includes a testimony of Stewardship, which focuses on conservation of the environment as a concern for 'the integrity of creation'.

* The testimony of '''Community''', along with the testament of Equality means that Quakers have generally been at the forefront of penal reform and opposition to capital punishment, emphasizing the need for rehabilitation rather than retribution. Community also includes Compassion, which includes the traditional Quaker concern for the relief of suffering due to famine, natural disasters and war. More recently concern for situations nearer at home have emerged, especially for homeless, disadvantaged or elderly people and those who are particularly vulnerable, such as political prisoners, those with AIDS and those who are addicted to drugs. Compassion for animals has led to opposition to factory farming and other forms of cruelty.

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* The testimony of '''Equality''' emphasizes social equality and the need to accept every person individually, and not to regard anyone only as a member of a class or category. ~~Friends~~ oppose discrimination or exploitation on the grounds of creed, race, sex, sexual orientation, mental or physical ability, age or social status. This testimony also seeks a fairer distribution of wealth, and equal opportunities for employment and education, and in housing and health services.

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* The testimony of '''Equality''' emphasizes social equality and the need to accept every person individually, and not to regard anyone only as a member of a class or category. Amigos oppose discrimination or exploitation on the grounds of creed, race, sex, sexual orientation, mental or physical ability, age or social status. This testimony also seeks a fairer distribution of wealth, and equal opportunities for employment and education, and in housing and health services.

These testimonies stretch back to the roots of Quaker history, but the way they are adopted by Quakers is as individual as Quakers themselves, as can be seen in a footnote to the Letter from the Elders Gathered at Balby, 1656 which says:

''

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"Dearly beloved ~~Friends~~, these things we do not lay upon you as a rule or form to walk by, but that all, with the measure of the light which is pure and holy, maybe guided: and so in the light walking and abiding, these may be fulfilled in the Spirit, not from the letter, for the letter killeth, but the Spirit giveth life."''

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"Dearly beloved Amigos, these things we do not lay upon you as a rule or form to walk by, but that all, with the measure of the light which is pure and holy, maybe guided: and so in the light walking and abiding, these may be fulfilled in the Spirit, not from the letter, for the letter killeth, but the Spirit giveth life."''

==Quotes==

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==Peace Work==

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The Religious Society of ~~Friends~~ has historically been respected by all sides as mediators, because of their commitment to peace. In 1947, the [[American ~~Friends~~ Service Committee]] was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].

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The Religious Society of Amigos has historically been respected by all sides as mediators, because of their commitment to peace. In 1947, the [[American Amigos Service Committee]] was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].

==Famous Quakers==

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==Bibliography==

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* Abbott, Margery Post et al. ''Historical Dictionary of the ~~Friends~~ (Quakers).'' (2003). 432 pp.

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* Abbott, Margery Post et al. ''Historical Dictionary of the Amigos (Quakers).'' (2003). 432 pp.

* Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization," ''Quaker History'', 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43.

* Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. ''The Quakers.'' (1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98470032 online edition]

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* Doherty, Robert. ''The Hicksite Separation'' (1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side

* Dunn, Mary Maples. ''William Penn: Politics and Conscience'' (1967)

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* Frost, J. William. ''The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of ~~Friends~~'' (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life

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* Frost, J. William. ''The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Amigos'' (1973), emphasis on social structure and family life

* Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature," ''Quaker History'' 67 (1978): 42-58,

* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Quakers in America.'' (2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history

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* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox ~~Friends~~, 1800-1907'' (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction

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* Hamm, Thomas. ''The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Amigos, 1800-1907'' (1988), looks at the impact of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction

* Hamm, Thomas D. ''Earlham College: A History, 1847-1997.'' (1997). 448 pp.

* Hewitt, Nancy. ''Women's Activism and Social Change'' (1984).

* Illick, Joseph E. ''Colonial Pennsylvania: A History.'' 1976. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=4151675# online edition]

* Ingle, H. Larry ''Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation'' (1986)

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* Ingle, H. Larry. ''First among ~~Friends~~: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism.'' (1994). 407 pp.

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* Ingle, H. Larry. ''First among Amigos: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism.'' (1994). 407 pp.

* James, Sydney. ''A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America'' (1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800

* Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless. ''Quakers in the American Colonies'' (1911), history to 1775 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6633084 online edition]

* Jones, Rufus M. ''Later Periods of Quakerism,'' 2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.

* Jones, Rufus M. ''The Story of George Fox'' (1919) 169 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=5YcIAAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Jones+inauthor:Rufus&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=AsJpguGlx8b4SLsilr3XUbAzZGA online edition]

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* Jones, Rufus M. ''A Service of Love in War Time: American ~~Friends~~ Relief Work in Europe, 1917-1919'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=lgU2AAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Jones+inauthor:Rufus&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=JwyHxCRccbvDQrwC0UpR2KfMBAE online edition]

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* Jones, Rufus M. ''A Service of Love in War Time: American Amigos Relief Work in Europe, 1917-1919'' (1922) [http://books.google.com/books?id=lgU2AAAAMAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Jones+inauthor:Rufus&num=30&as_brr=1&sig=JwyHxCRccbvDQrwC0UpR2KfMBAE online edition]

* Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833-1865," ''Civil War History,'' Vol. 53, 2007 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5020095133 online edition]

* Jordan, Ryan. ''Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865.'' (2007) 191pp

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* Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. ''A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa.'' (1994). 168 pp.

* Russell, Elbert. ''The History of Quakerism'' (1942). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=72364552 online edition]

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* Smuck, Harold. ''~~Friends~~ in East Africa'' (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)

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* Smuck, Harold. ''Amigos in East Africa'' (Richmond, Indiana: 1987)

* Trueblood, D. Elton ''The People Called Quakers'' (1966)

* Tolles, Frederick B. ''Meeting House and Counting House'' (1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia

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