Changes

== Early history==

== Early history==

=== Earliest History and Myths ===

=== Earliest History and Myths ===

The Low Countries were inhabited by numerous Germanic tribes who had an agricultural society. By the third century, these tribes organized into larger federations and three main groups emerged: the [[Franks]] in the South, the [[Saxons]] in the East, and the [[Frisian]]s in the North and West. Little is known of the pre-Christian pagan beliefs of the Germanic tribes, though it seems that [[Wodan]] and [[Donar]] were worshiped by the Germanic tribes in the Low Countries.   

The Low Countries were inhabited by numerous Germanic tribes who had an agricultural society. By the third century, these tribes organized into larger federations and three main groups emerged: the [[Franks]] in the South, the [[Saxons]] in the East, and the [[Frisians]] in the North and West. Little is known of the pre-Christian pagan beliefs of the Germanic tribes, though it seems that [[Wodan]] and [[Donar]] were worshiped by the Germanic tribes in the Low Countries.   

In earlier research of the origins of Dutch society, a number of myths shaped the scholarly discourse as well as the national consciousness. Led by the great scholar [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645) historians in the 17th and 18th centuries believed in the "Batavian myth" which posited the existence of an independent and free Batavian state and society in the Roman period. They interpreted the revolt of the Batavi in AD 70 as the earliest Dutch war of freedom against tyranny; the founders of the new Dutch "Batavian Republic" in 1795 saw themselves as recreating this heroic action. By 1890, scholars realized the myth was false, but Civilis, leader of the Batavians, remained in the national consciousness.<ref>E. O. G. Haitsma Mulier, "De Bataafse Mythe Opnieuw Bekeken" [The Batavian Myth Viewed Anew]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' (1996) 111(3): 344-367.</ref>

In earlier research of the origins of Dutch society, a number of myths shaped the scholarly discourse as well as the national consciousness. Led by the great scholar [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645) historians in the 17th and 18th centuries believed in the "Batavian myth" which posited the existence of an independent and free Batavian state and society in the Roman period. They interpreted the revolt of the Batavi in AD 70 as the earliest Dutch war of freedom against tyranny; the founders of the new Dutch "Batavian Republic" in 1795 saw themselves as recreating this heroic action. By 1890, scholars realized the myth was false, but Civilis, leader of the Batavians, remained in the national consciousness.<ref>E. O. G. Haitsma Mulier, "De Bataafse Mythe Opnieuw Bekeken" [The Batavian Myth Viewed Anew]. ''Bijdragen En Mededelingen Betreffende De Geschiedenis Der Nederlanden'' (1996) 111(3): 344-367.</ref>

===Roman Empire===

===Roman Empire===

Historical records date back to about 57 BC, when Roman armies under general [[Julius Caesar]] invaded and occupied the southern portion of the Low Countries. The northern frontier of the [[Roman Empire]] ran along the [[Rhine]] river through the Netherlands. The Romans established a number of fortifications along this frontier which became centers of trade. Germanic tribes living north of the frontier, such as the [[Frisians]], were still heavily influenced by Roman culture through trade contacts. As the Roman Empire disintegrated, Roman armies withdrew from the Netherlands by about AD 406.

Historical records date back to about 57 BC, when Roman armies under general [[Julius Caesar]] invaded and occupied the southern portion of the Low Countries. The northern frontier of the [[Roman Empire]] ran along the [[Rhine]] river through the Netherlands. The Romans established a number of fortifications along this frontier which became centers of trade. Germanic tribes living north of the frontier, such as the Frisians, were still heavily influenced by Roman culture through trade contacts. As the Roman Empire disintegrated, Roman armies withdrew from the Netherlands by about AD 406.

===Middle Ages===

===Middle Ages===

===Foreign policy===

===Foreign policy===

The House of Orange frewuently undermined the interests of the united Dutch provinces by pursuing an alliance with the Stuart kings of England for dynastic reasons. Although Frederick Henry (1584-1647), head of the House of Orange, refused to become entangled in British politics, and focused on the war with Spain that began in 1621. His son William II (1626-50), reversed policy, altered Anglo-Dutch relations, and sought a Stuart alliance, which came to nothing. Not until 1672 did [[William III (Britain)|William III]] adopt an independent policy.<ref>Simon Groenveld, "The House of Orange and the House of Stuart, 1639-1650: a Revision." ''Historical Journal'' 1991 34(4): 955-972. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639590  in Jstor]</ref>

The House of Orange frewuently undermined the interests of the united Dutch provinces by pursuing an alliance with the Stuart kings of England for dynastic reasons. Although Frederick Henry (1584-1647), head of the House of Orange, refused to become entangled in British politics, and focused on the war with Spain that began in 1621. His son William II (1626-50), reversed policy, altered Anglo-Dutch relations, and sought a Stuart alliance, which came to nothing. Not until 1672 did [[William III (Britain)|William III]] adopt an independent policy.<ref>Simon Groenveld, "The House of Orange and the House of Stuart, 1639-1650: a Revision." ''Historical Journal'' 1991 34(4): 955-972. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639590  in Jstor]</ref>

====French Revolution and Napoleon====

====French Revolution and Napoleon====

When the Dutch sided with the French Revolution through the Batavian Republic, the British moved against the Dutch empire. The prime targets were the East India Company and West India Company, private monopolies which had administered the Dutch colonies for two centuries. The British seized Ceylon, Malabar, Malacca, and the Cape of Good Hope.

When the Dutch sided with the French Revolution through the Batavian Republic, the British moved against the Dutch empire. The prime targets were the East India Company and West India Company, private monopolies which had administered the Dutch colonies for two centuries. The British seized Ceylon, Malabar, Malacca, and the Cape of Good Hope.

William I actively promoted economic modernization. His position as monarch was ambivalent, however; his sovereignty remained real, but his authority was shared with a legislature elected by the wealthy citizens under a constitution granted by the king. Government was in the hands of ministries of state. The old provinces were reestablished in name only. The government was now fundamentally unitary, and all authority flowed from the center. Economic liberalism combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism to accelerate the adaptation of the Netherlands to the new conditions of the 19th century. The country prospered until a crisis arose in relations with the southern provinces.

William I actively promoted economic modernization. His position as monarch was ambivalent, however; his sovereignty remained real, but his authority was shared with a legislature elected by the wealthy citizens under a constitution granted by the king. Government was in the hands of ministries of state. The old provinces were reestablished in name only. The government was now fundamentally unitary, and all authority flowed from the center. Economic liberalism combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism to accelerate the adaptation of the Netherlands to the new conditions of the 19th century. The country prospered until a crisis arose in relations with the southern provinces.

====Belgium breaks away====

====[[Belgium]] breaks away====

In the Catholic south ('''Belgium'''),<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect (Flemish) and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, after centuries as the state church in the south, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership. Few Catholics held high office in state or army.  Political liberals in the south complained as well about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.  

In the Catholic south ('''Belgium'''),<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect (Flemish) and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, after centuries as the state church in the south, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership. Few Catholics held high office in state or army.  Political liberals in the south complained as well about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.  

Dutch domestic history from the middle of the 19th century until the [[First World War]] was fundamentally one of the extension of liberal reforms in government, encouragement to the reorganization of the Dutch economy upon a modern basis, and the rise of trade unionism and socialism as movements of the working class independent of traditional liberalism.  The growth in prosperity was enormous, as real per capita GNP soared from 106 guilders in 1804 to 403 in 1913.

Dutch domestic history from the middle of the 19th century until the [[First World War]] was fundamentally one of the extension of liberal reforms in government, encouragement to the reorganization of the Dutch economy upon a modern basis, and the rise of trade unionism and socialism as movements of the working class independent of traditional liberalism.  The growth in prosperity was enormous, as real per capita GNP soared from 106 guilders in 1804 to 403 in 1913.

Religion was a contentious issue with repeated struggles over the relations of church and state in the field of education. In 1816, the government took full control of the [[Netherlands Reformed Church]] (Dutch ''Nederlands Hervormde Kerk''). In 1857, all religious instruction was ended in public schools, but the various churches set up their own schools, and even universities. Dissident members broke away from the Netherlands Reformed Church in the Secession of 1834. They were harassed by the government under an onerous Napoleonic law prohibiting gatherings of more than 20 members without a permit. After the harassment ended in the 1850s, a number of these dissidents eventually created the Christian Reformed Church in 1869; thousands migrated to Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa in the [[United States]]. By 1900 the dissidents represented about 10% of the population, as against 45% in the [[Netherlands Reformed Church]], which continued to be the only church to receive state money.<ref>Corwin, "Holland" [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.h.ix.html  ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,'' (1914) 5:319-22]</ref>

Religion was a contentious issue with repeated struggles over the relations of church and state in the field of education. In 1816, the government took full control of the [[Netherlands Reformed Church]] (Dutch ''Nederlands Hervormde Kerk''). In 1857, all religious instruction was ended in public schools, but the various churches set up their own schools, and even universities. Dissident members broke away from the Netherlands Reformed Church in the Secession of 1834. They were harassed by the government under an onerous Napoleonic law prohibiting gatherings of more than 20 members without a permit. After the harassment ended in the 1850s, a number of these dissidents eventually created the Christian Reformed Church in 1869; thousands migrated to Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa in the [[United States]]. By 1900 the dissidents represented about 10% of the population, as against 45% in the Netherlands Reformed Church, which continued to be the only church to receive state money.<ref>Corwin, "Holland" [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05.h.ix.html  ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,'' (1914) 5:319-22]</ref>

At mid-century, most Dutch belonged either to the Dutch Reformed churches (around 55%) or the Roman Catholic church (35 to 40%), together with smaller Protestant and Jewish groups.  A large and powerful sector of nominal Protestants were in fact secular liberals seeking to minimize religious influence. In reaction a novel alliance developed with Catholics and devout Calvinists joining against secular liberals. The Catholics, who had been loosely allied with the liberals in earlier decades, turned against them on the issue of state support, which the liberals insisted should be granted only to public schools, and joined with Protestant political parties in demanding equal state support to schools maintained by religious groups.<ref>J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1999) pp 387-403</ref>

At mid-century, most Dutch belonged either to the Dutch Reformed churches (around 55%) or the Roman Catholic church (35 to 40%), together with smaller Protestant and Jewish groups.  A large and powerful sector of nominal Protestants were in fact secular liberals seeking to minimize religious influence. In reaction a novel alliance developed with Catholics and devout Calvinists joining against secular liberals. The Catholics, who had been loosely allied with the liberals in earlier decades, turned against them on the issue of state support, which the liberals insisted should be granted only to public schools, and joined with Protestant political parties in demanding equal state support to schools maintained by religious groups.<ref>J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1999) pp 387-403</ref>