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→Twentieth century
[[Image:JimCrow.gif|thumb|Minstrel character "Jim Crow"]]
[[Image:JimCrow.gif|thumb|Minstrel character "Jim Crow"]]
'''Jim Crow''' was the system of laws passed by [[Democrats]] promoting racial segregation in the Southern U.S. from the 1880s to 1964 in which [[African American]]s were segregated (separated) in [[public school]]s and public places, so that they could not mingle in public with whites on equal terms. In addition to segregation, Jim Crow also assured that blacks had little or no political power. It was a low point in [[Black history]] after the euphoria of [[Reconstruction]].
'''Jim Crow''' was the system of laws passed by [[Democrats]] promoting racial segregation in the Southern U.S. from the 1880s to 1964 in which [[African American]]s were segregated (separated) in [[public school]]s and public places, so that they could not mingle in public with whites on equal terms. In addition to segregation, Jim Crow also assured that blacks had little or no political power. Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests and poll taxes aimed at [[voter suppression|supressing the vote]] were intended to ensure that the Republican party, which freed the slaves and promoted Black equality, never would benefit from the Black vote. It was a low point in [[Black history]] after the euphoria of [[Reconstruction]]. It is also sometimes used as a slur for [[African American]]s.
==Supreme Court approves==
==Supreme Court approves==
The [[Supreme Court]] of the United States held in the ''Civil Rights Cases'' (1883) that the [[Fourteenth Amendment]] did not give the federal government the power to outlaw private discrimination. In an even more important decision, the Court held in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' (1896) that Jim Crow laws were constitutional as long as they allowed for "separate but equal" facilities. Everyone knew that the "equal" in "separate but equal" was a technicality, and that gross inequality was tolerated in practice.
The [[Supreme Court]] of the United States held in the ''Civil Rights Cases'' (1883) that the [[Fourteenth Amendment]] did not give the federal government the power to outlaw private discrimination. In an even more important decision, the Court held in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' (1896) that Jim Crow laws were constitutional as long as they allowed for "separate but equal" facilities. Of course, in practice facilities were nowhere near "equal"; facilities for Whites were in far better condition than those for Blacks.
==Courts reverse==
==Courts reverse==
"De jure" or legal segregation took place when state laws required it, in the South and some border states. These laws mandated the physical separation of the races in order to create a social distance and minimize violence. The facilities purchased by taxpayers for black use was almost always inferior to those provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. (These Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 "Black Codes", which had defined an inferior legal status for free blacks.) State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in the seminal case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. All of the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
"De jure" or legal segregation took place when state laws required it, in the South and some border states. These laws mandated the physical separation of the races in order to create a social distance and minimize violence. The facilities purchased by taxpayers for black use was almost always inferior to those provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and blacks. (These Jim Crow Laws were separate from the 1800-66 "Black Codes", which had defined an inferior legal status for free blacks.) State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in the seminal case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]''. All of the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
During the [[Reconstruction]] period of 1863-77, federal law provided civil rights protection in the South for freedmen—the African-Americans who had formerly been slaves. Reconstruction ended at different dates (the latest 1877), and was followed in each southern state by [[Redeemers|Redeemer]] governments that passed the Jim Crow laws to separate the races. In the [[Progressive Era]], the restrictions were formalized, and segregation was extended to the federal government when the Democrats held the White House, 1913-21.
During the [[Reconstruction]] period of 1863–77, federal law provided civil rights protection in the South for freedmen—the African-Americans who had formerly been slaves. Reconstruction ended at different dates (the latest 1877), and was followed in each southern state by [[Redeemers|Redeemer]] governments that passed the Jim Crow laws to separate the races. In the [[Progressive Era]], the restrictions were formalized, and segregation was extended to the federal government when the [[Democratic party]] held the White House, 1913–21.
==Origins==
==Origins==
In 1954 in ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'' 347 US 483 that the Court under the firm guidance of Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] unanimously held that separate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools. It effectively overturned ''Plessy v. Ferguson'', and outlawed Jim Crow in other areas of society as well. A series of followup decisions slowly dismantled the state-sponsored school segregation laws, but left standing most segregation in practice.
In 1954 in ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'' 347 US 483 that the Court under the firm guidance of Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] unanimously held that separate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools. It effectively overturned ''Plessy v. Ferguson'', and outlawed Jim Crow in other areas of society as well. A series of followup decisions slowly dismantled the state-sponsored school segregation laws, but left standing most segregation in practice.
[[File:Jimcrow1.jpg|thumb|375px|Cafe in Durham, North Carolina, 1940. with separate doors and seating for "White" and for "Colored." Most restaurants, theaters and sporting venues in the South had separate seating sections. Jack Delano, [[FSA]] photographer]]
[[File:Jimcrow1.jpg|thumb|375px|Cafe in Durham, North Carolina, 1940. with separate doors and seating for "White" and for "Colored." Most restaurants, theaters and sporting venues in the South had separate seating sections. [[New Deal]] Democrats introduced separate eating areas in the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. among one of their first acts. Republican Rep. [[Oscar De Priest]], the lone African American in the entire Congress, was forced to eat in hallway beside the kitchen in the basement.<ref>https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/D/DE-PRIEST,-Oscar-Stanton-(D000263)/</ref> Jack Delano, [[FSA]] photographer]]
Besides state laws that compelled segregation of the races, private organizations were almost wholly segregated in the South.
Besides state laws that compelled segregation of the races, private organizations were almost wholly segregated in the South.
==Basic further reading==
==Basic further reading==
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR], by a leading black scholar
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR], by a leading black scholar
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [http://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books], by a leading white scholar; a highly influential book
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [https://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books], by a leading white scholar; a highly influential book
==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* Ayers, Edward L. ''The Promise of the New South'' (1992), a general history of the South in the late 19th century [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=90462753 online edition]
* Ayers, Edward L. ''The Promise of the New South'' (1992), a general history of the South in the late 19th century [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=90462753 online edition]
* Bartley, Numan V. ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s'' (1969).
* Bartley, Numan V. ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s'' (1969).
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Bond, Horace Mann. “The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States.” ''Journal of Negro Education'' 4(July 1935):321–27. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2984(193507)4%3A3%3C321%3ATEACOS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]
* Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. ''Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Remembering-Jim-Crow-Americans-Segregated/dp/1565847784/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. ''Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Remembering-Jim-Crow-Americans-Segregated/dp/1565847784/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin Gabriel Chin & Hrishi Karthikeyan, Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950, 9 Asian L.J. (2002)]
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin Gabriel Chin & Hrishi Karthikeyan, Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950, 9 Asian L.J. (2002)]
* Dailey, Jane, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds. ''Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights'' (2000), essays by scholars on impact of Jim Crow on black communities [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002470890 online edition]
* Dailey, Jane, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds. ''Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights'' (2000), essays by scholars on impact of Jim Crow on black communities [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002470890 online edition]
* Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877'' (1988), ISBN 0-06-015851-4, standard history of Reconstruction from [[neoabolitionist]] school
* Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877'' (1988), ISBN 0-06-015851-4, standard history of Reconstruction from [[neoabolitionist]] school
* Gaines, Kevin. ''Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century'' (1996). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/uplifting-the-race-black-leadership-politics-and-culture-in-the-twentieth-century-by-kevin-k-gaines.jsp online edition]
* Gaines, Kevin. ''Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century'' (1996). [http://www.questia.com/library/book/uplifting-the-race-black-leadership-politics-and-culture-in-the-twentieth-century-by-kevin-k-gaines.jsp online edition]
* Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. ''Gender and Jim Crow Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94820628 online edition]; also [http://www.amazon.com/Gender-Jim-Crow-Supremacy-1896-1920/dp/0807845965/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. ''Gender and Jim Crow Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94820628 online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/Gender-Jim-Crow-Supremacy-1896-1920/dp/0807845965/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Griffin, John Howard. ''Black Like Me'' (1996) A Southern white reporter darkens his skin to experience segregation in the Deep South in 1959.
* Griffin, John Howard. ''Black Like Me'' (1996) A Southern white reporter darkens his skin to experience segregation in the Deep South in 1959.
* Haws, Robert, ed. ''The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890– 1945'', 1978.
* Haws, Robert, ed. ''The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890– 1945'', 1978.
* Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama'' (1969)
* Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama'' (1969)
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Tillman-Reconstruction-Supremacy-Morrison-Southern/dp/0807848395/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613294&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/Tillman-Reconstruction-Supremacy-Morrison-Southern/dp/0807848395/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613294&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. "Ben Tillman and Hendrix McLane, Agrarian Rebels: White Manhood, 'The Farmers,' and the Limits of Southern Populism," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 66, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp. 497–524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(200008)66%3A3%3C497%3ABTAHMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Kantrowitz, Stephen. "Ben Tillman and Hendrix McLane, Agrarian Rebels: White Manhood, 'The Farmers,' and the Limits of Southern Populism," ''The Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 66, No. 3 (Aug., 2000), pp. 497–524 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4642(200008)66%3A3%3C497%3ABTAHMA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K in JSTOR]
* Kennedy, Randall. ''Martin Luther King's Constitution: a Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,'' 98 Yale Law Journal 999-1067 (April, 1989) pp 999–1067 [http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/civilrights03.htm online edition without footnotes]; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0044-0094(198904)98%3A6%3C999%3AMLKCAL%3E2.0.CO;2-E complete edition from JSTOR]
* Kennedy, Randall. ''Martin Luther King's Constitution: a Legal History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,'' 98 Yale Law Journal 999-1067 (April, 1989) pp 999–1067 [http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/civilrights03.htm online edition without footnotes]; [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0044-0094(198904)98%3A6%3C999%3AMLKCAL%3E2.0.CO;2-E complete edition from JSTOR]
* Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Jim-Crow-Civil-Rights-Struggle/dp/0195310187/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Jim-Crow-Civil-Rights-Struggle/dp/0195310187/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
* Lipsitz, George. "'Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac': White Supremacy, Antiblack Racism, and the New Historicism," ''American Literary History,'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 700–725 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199524)7%3A4%3C700%3A%22LSCWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Lipsitz, George. "'Swing Low, Sweet Cadillac': White Supremacy, Antiblack Racism, and the New Historicism," ''American Literary History,'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (Winter, 1995), pp. 700–725 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0896-7148(199524)7%3A4%3C700%3A%22LSCWS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in JSTOR]
* Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Trouble-Mind-Black-Southerners-Crow/dp/039452778X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613319&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/Trouble-Mind-Black-Southerners-Crow/dp/039452778X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200613319&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. '' (1989). [http://www.amazon.com/Dark-Journey-Black-Mississippians-Crow/dp/025206156X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610311&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. '' (1989). [https://www.amazon.com/Dark-Journey-Black-Mississippians-Crow/dp/025206156X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610311&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Myrdal, Gunnar. ''An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy'' (1944). Highly influential and detailed analysis of the Jim Crow system in operation. [http://www.amazon.com/American-Dilemma-Problem-Democracy-African-American/dp/1560008571/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610342&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Myrdal, Gunnar. ''An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy'' (1944). Highly influential and detailed analysis of the Jim Crow system in operation. [https://www.amazon.com/American-Dilemma-Problem-Democracy-African-American/dp/1560008571/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610342&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
* Newby, I. A. ''Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900-1930'' (1965)
* Newby, I. A. ''Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900-1930'' (1965)
* Percy, William Alexander. ''Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.'' (1941). by conservative white planter [http://www.amazon.com/Lanterns-Levee-Recollections-Planters-Son/dp/1406728357/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610379&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Percy, William Alexander. ''Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.'' (1941). by conservative white planter [https://www.amazon.com/Lanterns-Levee-Recollections-Planters-Son/dp/1406728357/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610379&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Rabinowitz, Howard N. ''Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890'' (1978)
* Rabinowitz, Howard N. ''Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890'' (1978)
* Ritterhouse, Jennifer. ''Growing Up Jim Crow: The Racial Socialization of Black and White Southern Children, 1890-1940.'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/Growing-Jim-Crow-Socialization-1890-1940/dp/0807856843/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Ritterhouse, Jennifer. ''Growing Up Jim Crow: The Racial Socialization of Black and White Southern Children, 1890-1940.'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Growing-Jim-Crow-Socialization-1890-1940/dp/0807856843/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, John David, ed. ''When Did Southern Segregation Begin?'' (2001), 194pp [http://www.amazon.com/Southern-Segregation-Begin-Historians-Palgrave/dp/0312237057/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200616609&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, John David, ed. ''When Did Southern Segregation Begin?'' (2001), 194pp [https://www.amazon.com/Southern-Segregation-Begin-Historians-Palgrave/dp/0312237057/ref=pd_bbs_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200616609&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'', (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101423964 online edition]
* Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'', (2002) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101423964 online edition]
* Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: 'Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro.'" ''Journal of Southern History'' 68 (February 2002): 65–106. [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002455235 online edition]
* Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of [[Paternalism]] in Virginia, 1922–1930: 'Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro.'" ''Journal of Southern History'' 68 (February 2002): 65–106. [http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002455235 online edition]
* Sterner, Richard. ''The Negro's share: a study of income, consumption, housing, and public assistance'' (1943), statistical analysis of 1930s [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.02857 ACLS E-book]
* Sterner, Richard. ''The Negro's share: a study of income, consumption, housing, and public assistance'' (1943), statistical analysis of 1930s [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.02857 ACLS E-book]
* Williams, Juan, and Julian Bond. ''Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965'' (1988) [http://www.amazon.com/Eyes-Prize-Americas-1954-1965-American/dp/0140096531/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610805&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Williams, Juan, and [[Julian Bond]]. ''Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965'' (1988) [https://www.amazon.com/Eyes-Prize-Americas-1954-1965-American/dp/0140096531/ref=pd_bbs_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610805&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [http://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (1955) Highly influential classic history by Pulitzer prize winner. [https://www.amazon.com/Strange-Career-Jim-Crow/dp/0195146905/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1200610418&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]; [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02029.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Origins of the New South: 1877-1913'' (1951). [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00007.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]
* Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Origins of the New South: 1877-1913'' (1951). [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00007.0001.001 complete text online at ACLS e-books]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Earl Warren]]
*[[Earl Warren]]
*[[Two-tier justice system]]
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm Minstrelsy] - Center for American Music
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~amerimus/minstrel.htm Minstrelsy] - Center for American Music
*[http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi Encyclopedia of Jim Crow]
*[http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/glossary.cgi Encyclopedia of Jim Crow]
*[https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4181907/mod_resource/content/1/Jim_Crow_encyclopedia.pdf The Jim Crow encyclopedia], edited by Nikki L.M. Brown and Barry M. Stentiford, Greenwood Press, 2008
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:United States History]]
[[Category:Civil Rights]]
[[Category:Civil Rights]]
[[Category:The South]]
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[[Category:1960s]]
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[[Category:Racism in the Democrat Party]]