Changes

The nation is under control from the [[Chinese Communist Party]], which encompasses mainland China, albeit with many border disputes. The Beijing claims [[Taiwan]] as a province, but the Taipei maintains its sovereignty.

The nation is under control from the [[Chinese Communist Party]], which encompasses mainland China, albeit with many border disputes. The Beijing claims [[Taiwan]] as a province, but the Taipei maintains its sovereignty.

[[Hong Kong]] was transferred back to Chinese control by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, and [[Macau]] was handed over by [[Portugal]] in 1999. Both territories are now [[Special Administrative Region]]s and have autonomy over local affairs. Since the 1950s China has increasingly asserted brutal control over [[Tibet]].

[[Hong Kong]] was transferred back to Chinese control by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, and [[Macau]] was handed over by [[Portugal]] in 1999. Both territories are now [[Special Administrative Region]]s and have autonomy over local affairs. However, the autonomy has been eroded in recent years, particularly after 2014 "Umbrella Revolution". Since the 1950s China has increasingly asserted brutal control over [[Tibet]].

Since China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China represents a vast market that is growing more affluent and sophisticated while remaining a low-cost base for export-oriented production. Educationally, China is forging ahead as partnerships, and exchanges with foreign universities have helped create new research opportunities for its students. China used the Summer Olympics in 2008 to showcase to the world its amazing gains of the past two decades. The new leadership is committed to generating greater economic development in the interior and providing more services to those who do not live in China's coastal areas. However, there is still much that needs to change in China.  

Since China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China represents a vast market that is growing more affluent and sophisticated while remaining a low-cost base for export-oriented production. Educationally, China is forging ahead as partnerships, and exchanges with foreign universities have helped create new research opportunities for its students. China used the Summer Olympics in 2008 as a platform of propagating the so called "economic development" to the world, while it is still a Communist country in its core of the past two decades since the 1989 Tiananmen Massacre. The new leadership is committed to generating greater economic development in the interior and providing more services to those who do not live in China's coastal areas. However, China is never a true market economy, as the key resources, such as land, is not privately owned; the so-called collective ownership is still de-facto government ownership. Moreover, on the Communist Regime's Constitution, Mainland China is still officially a Communist Country. In 2015, the Communist-controlled Mainland China (or self-proclaimed People's Republic) has been denied as a market economy.

For more information on China, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

For more information on China, see [[World History Lecture Three]].

Pinyin has now replaced other conventional spellings in China's English-language publications. The U.S. Government also has adopted the pinyin system for all names and places in China. For example, the capital of China is now spelled "Beijing" rather than "Peking."

Pinyin has now replaced other conventional spellings in China's English-language publications. The U.S. Government also has adopted the pinyin system for all names and places in China. For example, the capital of China is now spelled "Beijing" rather than "Peking."

In 2008 the anti-Communist government of Taiwan finally adopted the pinyin system, replaces the old [[Wade-Giles]] system which was increasingly ignored by the Chinese diaspora.

In 2008 the Republic of China government finally adopted the pinyin system, replaces the [[Wade-Giles]] system which is gradually pushed away by the Chinese diaspora.

==Religion==

==Religion==

The government says there are twenty million Muslims. Independent estimates range as high as fifty million or more. There are more than 40,000 Islamic places of worship (more than half of which are in the XUAR), more than 45,000 imams nationwide, and 10 Islamic schools. The country has ten predominantly Muslim ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Hui, estimated to number more than ten million. The Hui are centered in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, but there are significant concentrations of Hui throughout the country, including in Gansu, Henan, Qinghai, Yunnan, and Hebei Provinces, as well as in the TAR and the XUAR. Hui Muslims slightly outnumber Uighur Muslims, who live primarily in the XUAR. According to an official 2005 report, the XUAR had 23,900 mosques and 27,000 clerics at the end of 2004, but fewer than half of the mosques were authorized to hold Friday prayer and holiday services. The country also has more than one million Kazakh Muslims and thousands of Dongxiang, Kyrgyz, Salar, Tajik, Uzbek, Baoan, and Tatar Muslims.

The government says there are twenty million Muslims. Independent estimates range as high as fifty million or more. There are more than 40,000 Islamic places of worship (more than half of which are in the XUAR), more than 45,000 imams nationwide, and 10 Islamic schools. The country has ten predominantly Muslim ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Hui, estimated to number more than ten million. The Hui are centered in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, but there are significant concentrations of Hui throughout the country, including in Gansu, Henan, Qinghai, Yunnan, and Hebei Provinces, as well as in the TAR and the XUAR. Hui Muslims slightly outnumber Uighur Muslims, who live primarily in the XUAR. According to an official 2005 report, the XUAR had 23,900 mosques and 27,000 clerics at the end of 2004, but fewer than half of the mosques were authorized to hold Friday prayer and holiday services. The country also has more than one million Kazakh Muslims and thousands of Dongxiang, Kyrgyz, Salar, Tajik, Uzbek, Baoan, and Tatar Muslims.

Officials from the Three-Self Patriotic Movement/China Christian Council (TSPM/CCC), the state-approved Protestant religious organization, estimated that at least twenty million citizens worship in official churches. Government officials stated that there are more than 50,000 registered TSPM churches and 18 TSPM theological schools. The Pew Research Center estimates that between 50 million and 70 million Christians practice without state sanction. The World Christian Database estimates that there are more than 300 unofficial house church networks.

Officials from the Three-Self Patriotic Movement/China Christian Council (TSPM/CCC), the governmental organization in charge of the Christianity Churches (officially led by the CPC), estimated that at least twenty million citizens worship in official churches. Government officials stated that there are more than 50,000 registered TSPM churches and 18 TSPM theological schools. The Pew Research Center estimates that between 50 million and 70 million Christians practice without state sanction. However, some estimates over 100million people are Christians. The World Christian Database estimates that there are more than 300 unofficial house church networks.

The Catholic Patriotic Association (CPA) reports that 5.3 million persons worship in its churches and it is estimated that there are an additional 12 million or more persons who worship in unregistered Catholic churches that do not affiliate with the CPA. According to official sources, the government-sanctioned CPA has more than 70 bishops, nearly 3,000 priests and nuns, 6,000 churches and meeting places, and 12 seminaries. There are thought to be approximately 40 bishops operating "underground," some of whom are in prison or under house arrest. During the reporting period, at least three bishops were ordained with papal approval. In September 2007 the official media reported that Liu Bainian, CPA vice president, stated that the young bishops were to be selected to serve dioceses without bishops and to replace older bishops. Of the 97 dioceses in the country, 40 reportedly did not have an acting bishop in 2007, and more than 30 bishops were over 80 years of age.

The Catholic Patriotic Association (CPA) reports that 5.3 million persons worship in its churches and it is estimated that there are an additional 12 million or more persons who worship in unregistered Catholic churches that do not affiliate with the CPA. According to official sources, the government-sanctioned CPA has more than 70 bishops, nearly 3,000 priests and nuns, 6,000 churches and meeting places, and 12 seminaries. There are thought to be approximately 40 bishops operating "underground," some of whom are in prison or under house arrest. During the reporting period, at least three bishops were ordained with papal approval. In September 2007 the official media reported that Liu Bainian, CPA vice president, stated that the young bishops were to be selected to serve dioceses without bishops and to replace older bishops. Of the 97 dioceses in the country, 40 reportedly did not have an acting bishop in 2007, and more than 30 bishops were over 80 years of age.

[[File:Great Mosque Xi an China.jpg|thumb|330px|Great Mosque of Xi'an.]]

[[File:Great Mosque Xi an China.jpg|thumb|330px|Great Mosque of Xi'an.]]

In 2008, the Government's repression of religious freedom intensified in some areas, including in Tibetan areas and in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Unregistered Protestant religious groups in Beijing reported intensified harassment from government authorities in the lead up to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Media and China-based sources reported that municipal authorities in Beijing closed some house churches or asked them to stop meeting during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. During the reporting period, officials detained and interrogated several foreigners about their religious activities and in several cases alleged that the foreigners had engaged in "illegal religious activities" and cancelled their visas. Media reported that the total number of expatriates expelled by the Government due to concerns about their religious activities exceeded one hundred. Officials in the XUAR, the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), and other Tibetan areas tightly controlled religious activity. The Government sought the forcible return of several Uighur Muslims living abroad, some of whom had reportedly protested restrictions on the Hajj and encouraged other Muslims to pray and fast during Ramadan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, including those in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region and most Tibetan autonomous areas, faced more restrictions on their religious practice and ability to organize than Buddhists in other parts of the country. "Patriotic education" campaigns in the TAR and other Tibetan regions, which required monks and nuns to sign statements personally denouncing the Dalai Lama, and other new restrictions on religious freedom were major factors that led monks and nuns to mount peaceful protests at a number of monasteries on March 10, 2008. The protests and subsequent security response gave way to violence in Lhasa by March 14 and 15.  

In 2008, the Government's repression of religious freedom intensified in some areas, including in Tibetan areas and in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Unregistered Protestant religious groups in Beijing reported intensified harassment from government authorities in the lead up to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. Media and China-based sources reported that municipal authorities in Beijing closed some house churches or asked them to stop meeting during the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and Paralympic Games. During the reporting period, officials detained and interrogated several foreigners about their religious activities and in several cases alleged that the foreigners had engaged in "illegal religious activities" and cancelled their visas. Media reported that the total number of expatriates expelled by the Government due to concerns about their religious activities exceeded one hundred. Officials in the XUAR, the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), and other Tibetan areas tightly controlled religious activity. The Government sought the forcible return of several Uighur Muslims living abroad, some of whom had reportedly protested restrictions on the Hajj and encouraged other Muslims to pray and fast during Ramadan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, including those in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region and most Tibetan autonomous areas, faced more restrictions on their religious practice and ability to organize than Buddhists in other parts of the country. "Patriotic education" campaigns in the TAR and other Tibetan regions, which required monks and nuns to sign statements personally denouncing the Dalai Lama, and other new restrictions on religious freedom were major factors that led monks and nuns to mount peaceful protests at a number of monasteries on March 10, 2008. The protests and subsequent security response gave way to violence in Lhasa by March 14 and 15.  

"Underground" Roman Catholic clergy faced repression, in large part due to their avowed loyalty to the Vatican, which the Government accused of interfering in the country's internal affairs. The Government continued to repress groups that it designated as "cults," which included several Christian groups and Falun Gong.

"Underground" Roman Catholic clergy faced repression, in large part due to their avowed loyalty to the Vatican, which the Government accused of interfering in the country's internal affairs. The Government continued to repress groups that it designated as "cults," most of which included several Christian groups and Falun Gong.

Religious and ethnic minority groups such as Tibetan Buddhists and Uighur Muslims experienced societal discrimination not only because of their religious beliefs but also because of their status as ethnic minorities with distinct languages and cultures. After the March 2008 protests in Lhasa and other Tibetan areas there were reports of increased tensions between Tibetan Buddhists and Hui Muslims.

Religious and ethnic minority groups such as Tibetan Buddhists and Uighur Muslims experienced societal discrimination not only because of their religious beliefs but also because of their status as ethnic minorities with distinct languages and cultures. After the March 2008 protests in Lhasa and other Tibetan areas there were reports of increased tensions between Tibetan Buddhists and Hui Muslims.

The [[Falun Gong]] is a self-described spiritual movement that blends aspects of Taoism, Buddhism, and the meditation techniques and physical exercises of qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise discipline), with the teachings of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi. There are estimated to have been at least 2.1 million adherents of Falun Gong before the Government cleansed and persecute the group in 1999. Hundreds of thousands may practice Falun Gong privately, but with serious risks, and once discovered by the government agents, the practitioners will be jailed, lost jobs, and may not even attend the universities.

The [[Falun Gong]] is a self-described spiritual movement that blends aspects of Taoism, Buddhism, and the meditation techniques and physical exercises of qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise discipline), with the teachings of Falun Gong leader Li Hongzhi. There are estimated to have been at least 2.1 million adherents of Falun Gong before the Government cleansed and persecute the group in 1999. Hundreds of thousands may practice Falun Gong privately, but with serious risks, and once discovered by the government agents, the practitioners will be jailed, losing jobs, and may not even attend the universities. Moreover, the practitioners will risk the risk of having their organs live-harvested by the Communist government.<ref>https://www.theepochtimes.com/new-documentary-secret-audio-recordings-of-politburo-standing-committee-members-reveal-vast-state-run-enterprise-of-live-organ-harvesting_2263247.html</ref>

==Population Policy==

==Population Policy==

==Government==

==Government==

The People's Republic of China is an authoritarian state in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) constitutionally is the paramount source of power. Party members hold almost all top government, police, and military positions. Ultimate authority rests with the 25-member political bureau (Politburo) of the CCP and its nine-member standing committee. '''[[Hu Jintao]]''' holds the three most powerful positions as CCP general secretary, president, and chairman of the Central Military Commission. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.

The People's Republic of China is an totalitarian/authoritarian regime in which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) constitutionally is the base structure and source of power. Moreover, the society has been forced to run according to the motive of the Communist Party in the past decades, although not successful. Party members hold almost all top government, police, and military positions. Ultimate authority rests with the 25-member political bureau (Politburo) of the CCP and its nine-member standing committee. '''[[Xi Jinping]]''' holds the three most powerful positions as CCP general secretary, president, and chairman of the Central Military Commission. Civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the security forces.

===Chinese Communist Party===

===Chinese Communist Party===

The 71 million member CCP, authoritarian in structure and ideology, continues to dominate government. Nevertheless, China's population, geographical vastness, and social diversity frustrate attempts to rule by fiat from Beijing. Central leaders must increasingly build consensus for new policies among party members, local and regional leaders, influential non-party members, and the population at large.  

The 71 million member CCP, totalitarian in structure and ideology, continues to dominate government. Nevertheless, China's population, geographical vastness, and social diversity frustrate attempts to rule by fiat from Beijing. Core leaders are attempting to adopt several changes in order to support its own greed in power as a totalitarian state.  

In periods of greater openness, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase, particularly in the economic realm. This phenomenon is most apparent today in the rapidly developing coastal region. Nevertheless, in all important government, economic, and cultural institutions in China, party committees work to see that party and state policy guidance is followed and that non-party members do not create autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule. Party control is tightest in government offices and in urban economic, industrial, and cultural settings; it is considerably looser in the rural areas, where the majority of the people live.  

In periods of greater openness, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase, particularly in the economic realm. This phenomenon is most apparent today in the rapidly developing coastal region. Nevertheless, in all important government, economic, and cultural institutions in China, party committees work to see that party and state policy guidance is followed and that non-party members do not create autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule. Party control is tight- although not being felt directly.  

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the Party Congress, which traditionally meets at least once every 5 years. The 17th Party Congress is expected to take place in the fall of 2007. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party include:  

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the Party Congress, which traditionally meets at least once every 5 years. The 17th Party Congress is expected to take place in the fall of 2007. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party include:  

===State Structure===

===State Structure===

[[File:Great Hall of the People in Tiananmen Square in Beijing China.jpg|thumb|left|340px|In front of the Great Hall of the People in Tiananmen Square in Beijing.]]

[[File:Great Hall of the People in Tiananmen Square in Beijing China.jpg|thumb|left|340px|In front of the Great Hall of the People in Tiananmen Square in Beijing.]]

The Chinese Government has always been subordinate to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP); its role is to implement party policies. The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the President (the head of state), and the State Council. Members of the State Council include Premier Wen Jiabao (the head of government), a variable number of vice premiers (now four), five state councilors (protocol equivalents of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), and 22 ministers and four State Council commission directors.  

The Chinese Government is constructed around the Chinese Communist Party (CCP); its role is to implement party policies. The primary organs of state power are the National People's Congress (NPC), the President (the head of state), and the State Council. Members of the State Council include Premier Li Keqiang (the head of government), a variable number of vice premiers (now four), five state councilors (protocol equivalents of vice premiers but with narrower portfolios), and 22 ministers and four State Council commission directors.  

Under the Chinese constitution, the NPC is the highest organ of state power in China. It meets annually for about 2 weeks to review and approve major new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. These initiatives are presented to the NPC for consideration by the State Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Central Committee. Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel recommendations, various NPC committees hold active debate in closed sessions, and changes may be made to accommodate alternate views.  

Under the Communist constitution, the NPC is the highest organ of political power in Mainland China. It meets annually for about 2 weeks to review and approve major new policy directions, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes. These initiatives are presented to the NPC for consideration by the State Council after previous endorsement by the Communist Party's Central Committee. Although the NPC generally approves State Council policy and personnel recommendations, various NPC committees hold active debate in closed sessions, and changes may be made to accommodate alternate views.  

When the NPC is not in session, its permanent organ, the Standing Committee, exercises state power.

When the NPC is not in session, its permanent organ, the Standing Committee, exercises state power.

===Principal Government and Party Officials===

===Principal Government and Party Officials===

*President—Xi Jinping

*President—Xi Jinping

*Vice President—Li Yuanchao

*Vice President—Li Yuanchao

*NPC Chair—Wu Bangguo

*NPC Chair—Wu Bangguo

*Vice Premier—Zhang Gaoli

*Vice Premier—Zhang Gaoli

*Politburo Standing Committee—Hu Jintao (General Secretary), Wu Bangguo, Wen Jiabao, Jia Qinglin, Zeng Qinghong, Wu Guanzheng, Li Changchun, Luo Gan

*Politburo Standing Committee—Xi Jinping (General Secretary), Li Keqiang, Wang Yang, Li Zhanshu, Wang Huning, Zhao Leji, Han Zheng

*Other Politburo Members—Cao Gangchuan, Guo Boxiong, He Guoqiang, Hui Liangyu, Liu Qi, Liu Yunshan, Wang Lequan, Wang Zhaoguo, Wu Yi, Yu Zhengsheng, Zeng Peiyan, Zhang Dejiang, Zhang Lichang, Zhou Yongkang, Wang Gang (alternate)

*Other Politburo Members— Ding Xuexiang, Wang Chen, Liu He, Xu Qiliang, Sun Chunlan (Arrested), Li Xi, Li Qiang, Li Hongzhong, Yang Jiechi, Zhang Youxia, Chen xi, Chen Quanguo, Zhao Leji, Hu Chunhua, Guo Shengkun, Huang Kunming, Cai Qi.(alternate)

*Alternate Politburo Members—Wang Gang

*Alternate Politburo Members—Wang Gang

*Chairman, Central Military Commission—Hu Jintao

*Chairman, Central Military Commission—Xi Jinping

*Foreign Minister—Yang Jiechi

*Foreign Minister—Yang Jiechi

*Minister of Commerce—Bo Xilai

*Minister of Commerce—Zhong Shan

*Minister of Finance—Jin Renqing

*Minister of Finance—Jin Renqing

*Minister of Agriculture—Sun Zhengcai

*Minister of Agriculture—Sun Zhengcai

===Foreign Relations===

===Foreign Relations===

[[Image:Chinese painting.jpg|thumb|Chinese painting.]]

[[Image:Chinese painting.jpg|thumb|Chinese painting.]]

Since its establishment, the People's Republic has worked vigorously to win international support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong, Macau, and [[Taiwan]]. In the early 1970s, Beijing was recognized diplomatically by most world powers. [[Beijing]] (Pekin) assumed the China seat in the [[United Nations]] in 1971 and has since become increasingly active in multilateral organizations. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and the United States did so in 1979. As of July 2007, the number of countries that have diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 167, while 24 maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan.  

Since its establishment, the Communist Party is doing all it can to lure countries to stand and advocate for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong, Macau, and [[Taiwan]]. In the early 1970s, Beijing was recognized diplomatically by most world powers. [[Beijing]] (Pekin) assumed the China seat in the [[United Nations]] in 1971 and has since become increasingly active in multilateral organizations. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and the United States did so in 1979. As of July 2007, the number of countries that have diplomatic relations with Beijing had risen to 167, while 24 maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan.  

After the founding of the P.R.C., China's foreign policy initially focused on solidarity with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In 1950, China sent the People's Liberation Army into North Korea to help North Korea halt the UN offensive that was approaching the Yalu River. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.  

After the founding of the P.R.C., China's foreign policy initially focused on solidarity with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. In 1950, the Mainland Communist Regime sent the People's Liberation Army into North Korea to help North Korea halt the UN offensive that was approaching the Yalu River. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.  

In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position.  

In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position.  

In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a brief border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979) with the stated purpose of "teaching Vietnam a lesson."  

In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia, though it is because of Cambodian's brutality led to invasion. In response to the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a brief border war with Vietnam (February–March 1979) with the stated purpose of "teaching Vietnam a lesson."  

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia—the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.  

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia—the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.  

==Political Conditions==

==Political Conditions==

===Legal System===

===Legal System===

The government's efforts to promote rule of law are significant and ongoing. After the Cultural Revolution, China's leaders aimed to develop a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and revolutionary excesses. In 1982, the National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable.  

The government's efforts to promote rule of law appeared to be advancing, but impossible under the political structure constructed around the Communist Party. After the Cultural Revolution, China's leaders aimed to develop a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and revolutionary excesses. In 1982, the Communist's National People's Congress adopted a new state constitution that emphasized the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically held accountable.  

Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees—informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of China's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties—is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000 such committees in both rural and urban areas.  

Since 1979, when the drive to establish a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and regulations, most of them in the economic area, have been promulgated. The use of mediation committees—informed groups of citizens who resolve about 90% of China's civil disputes and some minor criminal cases at no cost to the parties—is one innovative device. There are more than 800,000 such committees in both rural and urban areas.  

Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. Legislation designed to modernize and professionalize the nation's lawyers, judges, and prisons was enacted. The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the crime of "counter-revolutionary" activity, although many persons are still incarcerated for that crime. Criminal procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process. The Chinese constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but these are often ignored in practice. In addition to other judicial reforms, the Constitution was amended in 2004 to include the protection of individual human rights and legally-obtained private property, but it is unclear how those provisions will be implemented. Although new criminal and civil laws have provided additional safeguards to citizens, previously debated political reforms, including expanding elections to the township level, and other legal reforms, including the reform of the reeducation through labor system, have been put on hold.  

Legal reform became a government priority in the 1990s. Legislation designed to modernize and professionalize the nation's lawyers, judges, and prisons was enacted. The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to sue officials for abuse of authority or malfeasance. In addition, the criminal law and the criminal procedures laws were amended to introduce significant reforms. The criminal law amendments abolished the crime of "counter-revolutionary" activity, although many persons are still incarcerated for that crime. Criminal procedures reforms also encouraged establishment of a more transparent, adversarial trial process. The Chinese constitution and laws provide for fundamental human rights, including due process, but these are often ignored in practice. In addition to other judicial reforms, the Constitution was amended in 2004 to include the protection of individual human rights and legally-obtained private property, but it is unclear how those provisions will be implemented. Although new criminal and civil laws have provided additional safeguards to citizens, previously debated political reforms, including expanding elections to the township level, and other legal reforms, including the reform of the reeducation through labor system, have been put on hold.  However, it is still impossible for certain groups to defend themselves as the legal system is constructed around the Communist Party.

The Chinese military is in the process of transforming itself from a land-based power, centered on a vast ground force, to a smaller, mobile, high-tech military eventually capable of mounting limited operations beyond its coastal borders.  

The Chinese military is in the process of transforming itself from a land-based power, centered on a vast ground force, to a smaller, mobile, high-tech military eventually capable of mounting limited operations beyond its coastal borders.  

China's power-projection capability is limited but has grown over recent years. China has acquired some advanced weapons systems from abroad, including Sovremmeny destroyers, SU-27 and SU-30 aircraft, and Kilo-class diesel submarines from Russia, and continued to develop domestic production capabilities, such as for the domestically-developed J-10 fighter aircraft. However, much of its air and naval forces continues to be based on 1960s-era technology. As the Defense Department's Quadrennial Defense Review, released February 2006, noted, the U.S. shares with other countries a concern about the pace, scope, and direction of China's military modernization. We view military exchanges, visits, and other forms of engagement are useful tools in promoting transparency, provided they have substance and are fully reciprocal. Regularized exchanges and contact also have the significant benefit of building confidence, reducing the possibility of accidents, and providing the lines of communication that are essential in ensuring that episodes such as the April 2001 EP-3 aircraft incident do not escalate into major crises. During their April 2006 meeting, President Bush and President Hu agreed to increase officer exchanges and to begin a strategic nuclear dialogue between STRATCOM and the Chinese military's strategic missile command. U.S. and Chinese militaries are also considering ways in which we might cooperate on disaster assistance relief.  

China's power-projection capability is limited but has grown over recent years. China has acquired some advanced weapons systems from abroad, including Sovremmeny destroyers, SU-27 and SU-30 aircraft, and Kilo-class diesel submarines from Russia, and continued to develop domestic production capabilities, such as for the domestically-developed J-10 fighter aircraft. However, much of its air and naval forces continues to be based on 1960s-era technology. As the Defense Department's Quadrennial Defense Review, released February 2006, noted, the U.S. shares with other countries a concern about the pace, scope, and direction of China's military modernization. We view military exchanges, visits, and other forms of engagement are useful tools in promoting transparency, provided they have substance and are fully reciprocal. Regularized exchanges and contact also have the significant benefit of building confidence, reducing the possibility of accidents, and providing the lines of communication that are essential in ensuring that episodes such as the April 2001 EP-3 aircraft incident do not escalate into major crises. During their April 2006 meeting, President Bush and President Hu agreed to increase officer exchanges and to begin a strategic nuclear dialogue between STRATCOM and the Chinese military's strategic missile command. U.S. and Chinese militaries are also considering ways in which we might cooperate on disaster assistance relief. However, it should be remembered that the Military is still under the Party's control. It is not to be equated with the European and American Armed forces.

===Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control Policy ===

===Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control Policy ===

The modern Chinese economy has benefited from investments from Taiwan and Hong Kong. They jumped far ahead of China by 1970 in terms of technology, and in recent years have invested in mainland industries.  

The modern Chinese economy has benefited from investments from Taiwan and Hong Kong. They jumped far ahead of China by 1970 in terms of technology, and in recent years have invested in mainland industries.  

These two factors have changed Chinese economy, from a command economy to a more socialist state, with the Chinese economy increasingly in the hands of privately owned businesses, not state- or military-run enterprises. The 2001 declaration by Jiang Zemin (former leader of the Communist Party) of the "theory of three represents"—that the CCP represents not only workers, but also intellectuals and entrepreneurs—was an explicit affirmation of what had been a trend for the previous years

These two factors have changed Chinese economy, from a command economy to a more socialist state, with the Chinese economy increasingly in the hands of privately owned businesses, not state- or military-run enterprises. However, after several years the trend reversed, as it is in the start that those who are related to the political power are treated differently than the rest of the enterprises.

 

[[File:National Stadium, Beijing.jpg|thumb|250px|National Stadium, Beijing.]]

[[File:National Stadium, Beijing.jpg|thumb|250px|National Stadium, Beijing.]]

Since 1980 China has enjoyed the highest economic growth rates in the world. Suddenly in mid-2008, the growth rate slowed sharply from 11% a year to only 5.5%.  Much of the economy was geared to exports, and building factories for exports to the United States and Japan.  When the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit, exports fell off and prices for industrial products like steel fell in half.  Many factories were shut down.  The decline has especially hit steel, cement and the construction industry.  The government in November 2008 announced a $586 billion stimulus program to build roads, dams, electric grids and other infrastructure projects that are designed to supplement the international market.<ref>David Barboza, "Great Engine of China Slows ," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/worldbusiness/26chinasteel.html?_r=1  ''New York Times'' Nov. 25, 2008]</ref>

Since 1980 China has enjoyed the highest economic growth rates in the world. Suddenly in mid-2008, the growth rate slowed sharply from 11% a year to only 5.5%.  Much of the economy was geared to exports, and building factories for exports to the United States and Japan.  When the [[Financial Crisis of 2008]] hit, exports fell off and prices for industrial products like steel fell in half.  Many factories were shut down.  The decline has especially hit steel, cement and the construction industry.  The government in November 2008 announced a $586 billion stimulus program to build roads, dams, electric grids and other infrastructure projects that are designed to supplement the international market.<ref>David Barboza, "Great Engine of China Slows ," [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/26/business/worldbusiness/26chinasteel.html?_r=1  ''New York Times'' Nov. 25, 2008]</ref>

===Poor Medical care===

===Poor Medical care===

China, like most Communist countries, gives low priority to medicine and medical care. China only spends 1% of GDP on health care, ranking #156 out of 196 nations surveys by the World Health Organization. Many people rely on traditional practitioners, having more faith in acupuncture than modern science.  In any case few have the opportunity to receive modern drugs or treatment with advanced devices. The local clinic has only a thermometer and stethoscope for instrumentation, and very few modern drugs. Only one in six medical personnel have a college degree, and those degrees are not high quality. The ordinary people want more medical care but that  hardly matters, for in a  dictatorship violence matters, but not public opinion.<ref>Gordon Fairclaugh, "In China, Rx for Ailing Health System," ''Wall Street Journal,'' Oct. 15, 2009</ref>

Mainland China, like most Communist regimes, gives low priority to medicine and medical care. Mainland China only spends 1% of GDP on health care, ranking #156 out of 196 nations surveys by the World Health Organization. Many people rely on traditional practitioners, having more faith in acupuncture than modern science.  In any case few have the opportunity to receive modern drugs or treatment with advanced devices. The local clinic has only a thermometer and stethoscope for instrumentation, and very few modern drugs. Only one in six medical personnel have a college degree, and those degrees are not high quality. The ordinary people want more medical care but that  hardly matters, for in a  dictatorship violence matters, but not public opinion.<ref>Gordon Fairclaugh, "In China, Rx for Ailing Health System," ''Wall Street Journal,'' Oct. 15, 2009</ref>

===Trade===

===Trade===

Opening to the outside remains central to China's development. Foreign-invested enterprises produce about half of China's exports, and China continues to attract large investment inflows. Foreign exchange reserves were $1.1 trillion at the end of 2006, and have now surpassed those of Japan, making China's foreign exchange reserves the largest in the world.

Opening to the outside remains central to China's development. Foreign-invested enterprises produce about half of China's exports, and China continues to attract large investment inflows. Foreign exchange reserves were $1.1 trillion at the end of 2006, and have now surpassed those of Japan, making China's foreign exchange reserves the largest in the world.

===Higher education===

===Higher education===

Despite fears that China may be outpacing the United States in turning out engineers, the number of college students in China who study engineering is on the decline, according to ''Global Times'', a Chinese newspaper. Fewer than one in 10 college graduates in 2009 majored in engineering. Instead, students are turning to economics, finance, and management, which pay more and carry more social status. "Engineering usually makes people think of factories, while factories often give people an impression of hard work, low wages, and layoffs," the newspaper quoted one professor as saying.

Despite fears that China may be outpacing the United States in turning out engineers, the number of college students in China who study engineering is on the decline, according to ''Global Times'', a Chinese party-controlled newspaper. Fewer than one in 10 college graduates in 2009 majored in engineering. Instead, students are turning to economics, finance, and management, which pay more and carry more social status. "Engineering usually makes people think of factories, while factories often give people an impression of hard work, low wages, and layoffs," the newspaper quoted one professor as saying.

Meanwhile, China is building universities overnight, and sending graduate students to the U.S. for PhD's so they can become professors.   

Although there are some considerable effort of developing the universities, the Communist regime are still having issues with academic freedoms, which means that some improvements will made, but the overall environment will not changed.   

The exodus of Chinese undergraduate and graduate students continues; as 180,000 left in 2008, about 25% percent more than in 2007, as more families were able to pay overseas tuition. For every four students who left in the past decade, only one returned; those with American PhDs in science or engineering the least likely to return.  The intellectual vitality, quality of science, pay scales and political climate is much more attractive in the West.  Those who return to China risk being shunned as "foreigners".<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/world/asia/07scholar.html?hp  Sharon LaFraniera, "Fighting Trend, China Is Luring Scientists Home," ''New York Times'' Jan. 6. 2010]</ref>

The exodus of Chinese undergraduate and graduate students continues; as 180,000 left in 2008, about 25% percent more than in 2007, as more families were able to pay overseas tuition. For every four students who left in the past decade, only one returned; those with American PhDs in science or engineering the least likely to return.  The intellectual vitality, quality of science, pay scales and political climate is much more attractive in the West.  Those who return to China risk being shunned as "foreigners".<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/world/asia/07scholar.html?hp  Sharon LaFraniera, "Fighting Trend, China Is Luring Scientists Home," ''New York Times'' Jan. 6. 2010]</ref>Now the exodus are enlarged into high-school students and even primary school students.

===The Chinese in Africa===

===The Chinese in Africa===

China has been spending huge amounts of money and time buying influence in various African countries.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/Africa-Monitor/2011/0217/China-s-latest-trade-visit-to-Africa-reveals-a-different-approach-to-business]</ref> China has given 45 Afriacn countries $115 billion, a figure which is growing at 44% every year. Africa has many desirable resources such as [[diamonds]], [[oil]], and rare earth metals such as [[Indium]] which is used to make the touch screens for new high-tech devices such as [[Apple]]'s [[iPad]]<ref>[http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/assembled-cost-of-an-ipad]</ref> and [[iPhone]], often under [[sweat shop]] conditions.

China has been spending huge amounts of money and time buying influence in various African countries.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/Africa-Monitor/2011/0217/China-s-latest-trade-visit-to-Africa-reveals-a-different-approach-to-business]</ref> China has given 45 Afriacn countries $115 billion, a figure which is growing at 44% every year. Africa has many desirable resources such as [[diamonds]], [[oil]], and rare earth metals such as [[Indium]] which is used to make the touch screens for new high-tech devices such as [[Apple]]'s [[iPad]]<ref>[http://blogs.indium.com/blog/an-interview-with-the-professor/assembled-cost-of-an-ipad]</ref> and [[iPhone]], often under [[sweat shop]] conditions.

Under the leadership of the [[KMT]] (Kuomintang), headed by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. The KMT tried to destroy the Communists under [[Mao Zedong]], but they escaped in the "Long March" of 1934-35. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.   

Under the leadership of the [[KMT]] (Kuomintang), headed by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. The KMT tried to destroy the Communists under [[Mao Zedong]], but they escaped in the "Long March" of 1934-35. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto.   

In 1945-46, the U.S. attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed.  In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under [[Mao Zedong]] established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to Taiwan. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949.  

In 1945-46, the U.S. attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed.  In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under [[Mao Zedong]] established a totalitarian regime, forcing the elected constitutional ROC Government to Taiwan. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949.  

Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950–53), and around 1960 broke bitterly with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy.  Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.  

Mao liquidated millions of opponents, acting against the International society in the [[Korean War]] (1950–53), and around 1960 broke bitterly with the Soviet Union over the control of the Communist world.  Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.  

After 1978, Mao's successor [[Deng Xiaoping]] focused on market-oriented economic development, and by 2000 output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls and Internet censorship remain tight.

After 1978, Mao's successor [[Deng Xiaoping]] constructed a market-economy system, while still remain de-facto control over the land by imposing the length of usage of the land, and by 2000 output had increased, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and mediocre relations were secured with the West. For much of the population, living standards have improved and the material choices are growing, yet totalitarian rule and the ownership of the Internet still firmly gripped.

China's economy during the last quarter century has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade, to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy.

China's economy during the last quarter century has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade, to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy.

== Human Rights ==

== Human Rights ==

Under Mao millions of Chinese were killed by famines or government action against the middle classes. The "[[Cultural Revolution]]" in the 1960s was a counterattack against intellectuals endorsed by Mao; it set back China by decades until his death in 1976.

Under Mao millions of Chinese were died, no matter it is famine or political movements, they are all the results of Communism itself. The "[[Cultural Revolution]]" in the 1960s was an Communistic effort of eradicating Chinese culture endorsed by Mao in order to eliminate potential political elite that could act against the Communist Party; it set back China by decades, even after his death, the damage in the social morality is still remaining.

After the mid-1980s the new leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] promoted rapid modernization. While Mao's memory was still revered, most of his brutal policies were ended and much economic freedom—and a dash of political liberalization—was allowed.  Intellectuals were encouraged to speak out again and to share in a new spirit of "democratization." However Communist party leaders in 1986 warned that modernization must not be used as an excuse to introduce "bourgeois philosophies and social doctrines." By late 1986 student groups began to demonstrate demanding more student participation in local government, a greater degree of democracy, and better living conditions.  As demonstrations escalated Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the party, resigned, confessing that he had made major mistakes and would take responsibility for them.  It was a setback to political and economic liberalization, though Hu remained, out of office, a symbol of the potential for democracy.  Hu's death in April 1989, sparked widespread public rallies in favor of broad social changes in Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities.  Tens of thousands of students defied a government clampdown to demonstrate in May in [[Tiananmen Square]] central Beijing.  The Party moved to kill dissent, sending uneducated rural troops into square on June 3–4; hundreds of demonstrators were killed, wounded, or arrested.  The world was appalled.  Following the savage repression of democrats in all major cities Deng Xiaoping appeared to be even more firmly in control.  

After the mid-1980s the new leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] promoted rapid modernization. While Mao's memory was still revered, most of his brutal policies were ended and much economic freedom—and a dash of political liberalization—was allowed.  Intellectuals were encouraged to speak out again and to share in a new spirit of "democratization." However Communist party leaders in 1986 warned that modernization must not be used as an excuse to introduce "bourgeois philosophies and social doctrines." By late 1986 student groups began to demonstrate demanding more student participation in local government, a greater degree of democracy, and better living conditions.  As demonstrations escalated Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the party, resigned, confessing that he had made major mistakes and would take responsibility for them.  It was a setback to political and economic liberalization, though Hu remained, out of office, a symbol of the potential for democracy.  Hu's death in April 1989, sparked widespread public rallies in favor of broad social changes in Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities.  Tens of thousands of students defied a government clampdown to demonstrate in May in [[Tiananmen Square]] central Beijing.  The Party moved to kill dissent, sending uneducated rural troops into square on June 3–4; hundreds of demonstrators were killed, wounded, or arrested.  The world was appalled.  Following the savage repression of democrats in all major cities Deng Xiaoping appeared to be even more firmly in control.  

The China country reports in the U.S. State Department's 2009 Human Rights Practices and International Religious Freedom Reports<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009]</ref> noted China's well-documented and continuing abuses of human rights in violation of internationally recognized norms, stemming both from the authorities' intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for basic freedoms. Reported abuses have included arbitrary and lengthy incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as severe restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, privacy, worker rights, and coercive birth limitation. In 2006, China continued the monitoring, harassment, intimidation, and arrest of journalists, Internet writers, defense lawyers, religious activists, and political dissidents. The activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), especially those relating to the rule of law and expansion of judicial review, continue to be restricted.

The China country reports in the U.S. State Department's 2009 Human Rights Practices and International Religious Freedom Reports<ref>See [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm U.S. State Department, ''2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)'' Feb. 25, 2009]</ref> noted China's well-documented and continuing abuses of human rights in violation of internationally recognized norms, stemming both from the authorities' intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for basic freedoms. Reported abuses have included arbitrary and lengthy incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as severe restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, privacy, worker rights, and coercive birth limitation. In 2006, China continued the monitoring, harassment, intimidation, and arrest of journalists, Internet writers, defense lawyers, religious activists, and political dissidents. The activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), especially those relating to the rule of law and expansion of judicial review, continue to be restricted.

In 2008 China loosened its restrictions somewhat for the Summer Olympics. The government arbitrarily closes down Internet access to prevent the people from learning about the world.

In 2008 China loosened its restrictions somewhat for the Summer Olympics. The government owns the Internet access and censor several websites to prevent the people from learning about the Communist regime and the evil root of the Communism.

Human rights failures remain a major concern. Abatement of pollution and improvements in systems to ensure food, drug, and product safety are major concerns,  especially after notorious episodes of exporting poisoned pet food, toothpaste and infant formula.

Human rights failures remain a major concern. Abatement of pollution and improvements in systems to ensure food, drug, and product safety are major concerns,  especially after notorious episodes of exporting poisoned pet food, toothpaste and infant formula.