Changes

==Coal mining==

==Coal mining==

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce—the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 million tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref>Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [http://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce—the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 million tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref>Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [https://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

==Iron and steel==

==Iron and steel==

==Social impact==

==Social impact==

The technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution came many decades before their impact on society was visible. An early response was mob attacks on textile mills from "Luddites", who were opposed to the mechanised system which brought unemployment to those involved in hand-spinning. Lancashire mills, particularly, incurred trouble and many were destroyed by fire.<ref>Frank Peel, ''The Risings of the Luddites, Chartists & Plugdrawers'' (1888) [http://books.google.com/books?id=22nbOVVO4WsC&pg=PA9&dq=intitle:luddites&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]</ref>  Historians of the emergence of a working class consciousness however point the 1830s and 1840s, and study complex causes, such as the demand for greater participation in society and politics sparked by the Napoleonic wars and the rise of Methodism. Major demographic changes became visible starting in the 1840s.<ref>Berg and Hudson, (1992)</ref>

The technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution came many decades before their impact on society was visible. An early response was mob attacks on textile mills from "Luddites", who were opposed to the mechanised system which brought unemployment to those involved in hand-spinning. Lancashire mills, particularly, incurred trouble and many were destroyed by fire.<ref>Frank Peel, ''The Risings of the Luddites, Chartists & Plugdrawers'' (1888) [https://books.google.com/books?id=22nbOVVO4WsC&pg=PA9&dq=intitle:luddites&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]</ref>  Historians of the emergence of a working class consciousness however point the 1830s and 1840s, and study complex causes, such as the demand for greater participation in society and politics sparked by the Napoleonic wars and the rise of Methodism. Major demographic changes became visible starting in the 1840s.<ref>Berg and Hudson, (1992)</ref>

===Standard of living===

===Standard of living===

* Rostow, W. W. ''The world economy: history & prospect'' (1978) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=economic%20history;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb03280.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Rostow, W. W. ''The world economy: history & prospect'' (1978) [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;q1=economic%20history;rgn=subject;view=toc;idno=heb03280.0001.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Singer, Charles Joseph, ed. ''A history of technology: vol 4: The Industrial Revolution c 1750-c 1860'' (1960) ch 4, and vol 5: ''The Late Nineteenth Centuiry, c 1850- c 1900,'' ch 3; [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02191.0004.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Singer, Charles Joseph, ed. ''A history of technology: vol 4: The Industrial Revolution c 1750-c 1860'' (1960) ch 4, and vol 5: ''The Late Nineteenth Centuiry, c 1850- c 1900,'' ch 3; [http://ets.umdl.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb02191.0004.001 online at ACLS e-books]

* Usher, Abbott Payson. ''An Introduction to the Industrial History of England'' (1920) 529 pages [http://books.google.com/books?id=EcwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Abbott+inauthor:Payson+inauthor:Usher&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

* Usher, Abbott Payson. ''An Introduction to the Industrial History of England'' (1920) 529 pages [https://books.google.com/books?id=EcwCAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Abbott+inauthor:Payson+inauthor:Usher&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]

===Social history===

===Social history===

===United States===

===United States===

* Clark, Victor S.  ''History of Manufactures in the United States: 1607-1860'' (1916) [http://books.google.com/books?id=x-EMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:manufactures+inauthor:clark&num=30&sig=-8RXQtpVElAoyDY2eN5J31hyBrM#PPP11,M1 online at books.google.com]

* Clark, Victor S.  ''History of Manufactures in the United States: 1607-1860'' (1916) [https://books.google.com/books?id=x-EMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:manufactures+inauthor:clark&num=30&sig=-8RXQtpVElAoyDY2eN5J31hyBrM#PPP11,M1 online at books.google.com]

* Copeland, Melvin Thomas. ''The Cotton Manufacturing Industry of the United States'' (1912) ch 1. [http://books.google.com/books?id=iOkJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=intitle:cotton+inauthor:copeland&num=30 online]  

* Copeland, Melvin Thomas. ''The Cotton Manufacturing Industry of the United States'' (1912) ch 1. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iOkJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=intitle:cotton+inauthor:copeland&num=30 online]  

* Mathias, Peter, and M. M. Postan, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire, Vol. 7, Pt. 2 The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise, The United States, Japan and Russia,'' (1978)

* Mathias, Peter, and M. M. Postan, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire, Vol. 7, Pt. 2 The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise, The United States, Japan and Russia,'' (1978)

* Nettels, Curtis. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815'' (1962)

* Nettels, Curtis. ''The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815'' (1962)