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In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger forces of the Beiyang warlords. By the time the Nationalists arrived in Shanghai in April 1927, communist attacks on "class enemies" and foreigners had provoked a backlash. Shanghai's communist-led labor unions prepared a seizure of the French Concession and the International Settlement, protected by Britain. The French and British were Russia's enemies, not China's. Fearing a military response, Chiang initiated a bloody purge, not only against leftists in Shanghai, but in other urban centers as well. Hu supported Chiang, but Wang continued the United Front in Wuhan. After the Wuhan Nationalists intercepted a message from Moscow authorizing a coup, they too purged the communists in July. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The communists fled to the countryside where they staged the "Autumn Harvest" uprisings in August and October. There was a brief but savage coup in Guangzhou in December. By the end of year, most of the communists had been killed or defected. The rest had been driven into the mountains or the interior.

In the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] led the Nationalists to a surprisingly easy victory over the far larger forces of the Beiyang warlords. By the time the Nationalists arrived in Shanghai in April 1927, communist attacks on "class enemies" and foreigners had provoked a backlash. Shanghai's communist-led labor unions prepared a seizure of the French Concession and the International Settlement, protected by Britain. The French and British were Russia's enemies, not China's. Fearing a military response, Chiang initiated a bloody purge, not only against leftists in Shanghai, but in other urban centers as well. Hu supported Chiang, but Wang continued the United Front in Wuhan. After the Wuhan Nationalists intercepted a message from Moscow authorizing a coup, they too purged the communists in July. The two wings of the Nationalist Party were reunited and the capital was moved to Nanjing in September. The communists fled to the countryside where they staged the "Autumn Harvest" uprisings in August and October. There was a brief but savage coup in Guangzhou in December. By the end of year, most of the communists had been killed or defected. The rest had been driven into the mountains or the interior.

Zhang's government in Beijing dissolved in late May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang himself fled to Manchuria in early June. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang when he arrived in Mukden. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[http://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, [[Zhang Xueliang]], Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

Zhang's government in Beijing dissolved in late May 1928 as Chiang's forces approached, and Zhang himself fled to Manchuria in early June. Furious with his failure to stop Chiang’s advance, the Japanese murdered Zhang when he arrived in Mukden. The United States recognized Nationalist China in July, the first nation to do.<ref>''[https://books.google.com.vn/books?id=HuB6gPHeP_cC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false China White Paper: August 1949]'', p. 12.</ref> The U.S. also signed a treaty with Nanjing restoring China's tariff autonomy. In December, [[Zhang Xueliang]], Zhang Zuolin's son, agreed to fly the Nationalist flag in Manchuria and China was reunited, at least nominally.

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

Despite these preparations, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Three months of savage street-to-street fighting turned Shanghai into an expanse of smoking wreckage.<ref name=Harmsen>Harmsen, Peter, ''Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze'' (2013)</ref> The battle, carefully reported by the world's media from the safety of the International Settlement, marked the end of High Modern China.<ref name="Harmsen" /> Besides Shanghai, Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Despite these preparations, China was quickly overwhelmed when the Japanese finally launched their offensive in July 1937. Three months of savage street-to-street fighting turned Shanghai into an expanse of smoking wreckage.<ref name=Harmsen>Harmsen, Peter, ''Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze'' (2013)</ref> The battle, carefully reported by the world's media from the safety of the International Settlement, marked the end of High Modern China.<ref name="Harmsen" /> Besides Shanghai, Japan overran a vast region and cut off China's access to seaports. When Nanjing was captured, Japanese soldiers ran amok in a notorious episode and many Chinese were slaughtered. The Nationalists retreated to Chongqing in the southwest, the Communists to Yan'an in the northwest. A puppet state led by Wang, former head of the leftist Wuhan government, was set up in Nanjing in 1940.

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[http://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21.) "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

Anxious to counter the Japanese threat so he could focus on Hitler, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Chiang in August 1937. Stalin had no desire to repeat the bloody betrayals and double crosses of 1927. Chuikov, Stalin's man in China, was instructed to follow the agreement strictly.<ref>"Relevant treaties were concluded with Chiang Kai-shek's government," Stalin told Chuikov. "You will act in strict accordance with them." (''[https://books.google.com.tw/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&dq= The Soviet Union and Communist China, 1945-1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance]'' by Dieter Heinzig, p. 21.) "Any delivery of weapons from the USSR to the special region would be in violation of the agreement with central government in Chungking and would lead to the collapse of the anti-Japanese alliance," as Petr Vlasov, the Soviet representative in Yan'an explained.</ref> At this point, the Nationalists had about 2 million soldiers, the Chinese Communists about 100,000.<ref>Heinzig, p. 21.</ref> Bowing to Moscow's pressure, Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] mounted the "Hundred Regiments Offensive" in late 1940. The Japanese responded with the savage "three all" reprisals ("kill all, burn all, and destroy all"). The Communists never seriously challenged them again.<ref>Hienzig, p. 30.</ref>  

The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], a volunteer squadron of American aviators led by [[Claire Chennault]], was lionized. First Lady [[Soong Meiling]], a U.S.-educated Christian, was even more admired as a resistance leader. The Burma Road was built to allow U.S. "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. After the Japanese conquered Burma in 1942, supplies were flown over the Himalayas until the Ledo Road was completed in January 1945.

The Chinese cause received much sympathetic attention in the U.S. press, and the [[Flying Tigers]], a volunteer squadron of American aviators led by [[Claire Chennault]], was lionized. First Lady [[Soong Meiling]], a U.S.-educated Christian, was even more admired as a resistance leader. The Burma Road was built to allow U.S. "lend-lease" aid to reach the Chinese army. After the Japanese conquered Burma in 1942, supplies were flown over the Himalayas until the Ledo Road was completed in January 1945.

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

* Bergere,  Marie-Claire. ''Sun Yat-Sen'' (1998),  480pp, the standard biography, based on rigorous modern scholarship

* Bergere,  Marie-Claire. ''Sun Yat-Sen'' (1998),  480pp, the standard biography, based on rigorous modern scholarship

* Boorman, Howard L., ed.  ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979).  600 valuable short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]

* Boorman, Howard L., ed.  ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979).  600 valuable short scholarly biographies [https://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]

* Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (1970) 3: 170-89, excellent starting place. [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=+YANG+CH'%C3%9C-Y%C3%9CN&source=web&ots=2vo5nB_pW4&sig=z9_ba59M35GI7n85WvjZR5zS3HU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA170,M1  complete text online]

* Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (1970) 3: 170-89, excellent starting place. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=+YANG+CH'%C3%9C-Y%C3%9CN&source=web&ots=2vo5nB_pW4&sig=z9_ba59M35GI7n85WvjZR5zS3HU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA170,M1  complete text online]

* Dreyer, Edward L.  ''China at War, 1901-1949.'' (1995). 422 pp.   

* Dreyer, Edward L.  ''China at War, 1901-1949.'' (1995). 422 pp.   

* Eastman Lloyd. ''Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937- 1945.'' (1984)

* Eastman Lloyd. ''Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937- 1945.'' (1984)