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Line 1: − [[File:United Nations flag.png|thumb|300px|Flag of the [[United Nations]]]] − [[File:European Union flag.png|thumb|300px|The [[European Union]] is one of the numerous globalist, left-wing organizations in the world.]] − :''For the main and ultimate goal of globalism, see [[One-world government]]'' − {{See also|War on Sovereignty}} − '''Globalism''' is the failed [[liberal]] [[authoritarian]] desire for a "one world" view that rejects the important role of nations in protecting values and encouraging productivity. Globalism is anti-[[America]]n in encouraging Americans to adopt a "world view" rather than an "American view." The ultimate goal of globalism is the eventual unification of humanity under a [[one-world government]]. − Globalists oppose [[nationalism]], [[national sovereignty]], and [[self-governance]]. Instead, they favor [[open borders]], [[free trade]],<ref>Scaliger, Charles (August 20, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/print-magazine/item/29719-free-trade-isn-t-really-about-trade “Free Trade” Isn’t Really About Trade]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 20, 2018.</ref> [[H-1B visas]], interventionism, foreign aid, and changing the [[U.S. Constitution]]. They oppose strong border security and the building of [[border wall]]s. Globalists virulently opposed [[Donald Trump]] in 2016. Instead, globalists preferred [[Jeb Bush]], [[John Kasich]], [[Marco Rubio]] and [[Ted Cruz]] for the nomination, the latter of which have voted in favor of the globalist agenda as senators. Globalists can come from several political leanings, from the [[far-left]] to those considered on the right-of-center.<ref>Leahy, Michael Patrick (October 31, 2017). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/10/31/paul-singer-and-george-soros-billionaire-bookends-of-globalist-opposition-to-trump-agenda/ Paul Singer and George Soros: Billionaire Bookends of Globalist Opposition to Trump Agenda]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved November 1, 2017.</ref> [[George Soros]] and the [[Koch brothers]] are globalists. Globalists falsely claim that mass migration is necessary for economic growth.<ref>Binder, John (July 27, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/07/27/fail-9-times-globalists-claimed-mass-immigration-is-necessary-to-increase-gdp/ Fail: 9 Times Globalists Claimed Mass Immigration Is Necessary to Increase GDP]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved July 28, 2018.</ref>+ − Liberals support globalism because it leads to centralized power, thereby providing liberals with an easier way to gain control. Liberals can more easily persuade a handful of people in centralized government to rule in their favor than convince everyone of their agenda in a decentralized form of government. Goals of [[America]]n globalists include:+ − *"harmonizing" our laws with foreign ones, rather than vice-versa+ − *[[amnesty]] for [[illegal alien]]s, [[open borders]], no [[border wall]]+ − *more visas for guest workers − *repealing the [[Second Amendment]] − *eliminating the [[abortion]] issue from politics by making ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' permanent − *repealing the [[Electoral College]] − *a parliamentary style of government − *repealing the [[Treaty Clause]] − *supporting many unnecessary treaties, like [[NAFTA]] and the [[Paris climate agreement]], which don't receive Senate approval − *removing state sovereignty and, eventually, establishing a [[one-world government]] − European globalists (also known as [[Europhile]]s) have similar goals, including the removal of national sovereignty and eventually establishing a politically unified Europe and world government,<ref>Newman, Alex (August 20, 2013). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/world-news/item/16343-the-eu-regionalization-trumps-sovereignty The EU: Regionalization Trumps Sovereignty]. ''The New American''. Retrieved November 25, 2017.</ref> encouraging mass migration<ref>Newman, Alex (August 20, 2018). [https://www.thenewamerican.com/print-magazine/item/29717-globalists-created-the-refugee-crisis Globalists Created the Refugee Crisis]. ''The New American''. Retrieved August 20, 2018.</ref> from countries that do not share the values of the European host countries, and the support of [[crony capitalism]]. Not only do they attempt to establish centralized control over Europe, but they also seek authority over the United States, as illustrated by an incident in 2018 where several European politicians claimed President Trump's tariffs were illegal and violated "international law."<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-g7-scholz/u-s-tariff-move-breaks-international-law-german-finance-minister-idUSKCN1IX3BB U.S. tariff move breaks international law: German finance minister]. ''Reuters''. May 31, 2018. Retrieved May 31, 2018.</ref><ref>[http://time.com/5297934/emmanuel-macron-donald-trump-tariffs/ French President Macron Calls President Trump's Tariff Decision 'Illegal']. ''Time'' (from the ''Associated Press''). May 31, 2018. Retrieved May 31, 2018.</ref><ref>Deacon, Liam (June 1, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/london/2018/06/01/eu-attacks-trumps-illegal-tariffs-takes-us-ttrade-court-threatens-trade-war/ EU, Macron Attack Trump’s ‘Illegal’ Tariffs, Take U.S. to Trade Court, Threaten Trade War]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved June 1, 2018.</ref>+ − Theologically conservative/orthodox Christians believe that the ultimate reason for the push for globalism and one-world government is rebellion against God leading up to the [[Antichrist]] – rather than submit to God and recognize that only He can unite the world and bring world peace, liberal globalists seek to create utopia themselves and glorify humanity rather than God.<ref>Multiple references:+ − *Hohmann, Leo (October 16, 2016). [http://www.wnd.com/2016/10/is-globalism-actually-demonic/ Is Globalism Actually Demonic?] ''WND''. Retrieved December 26, 2017.+ − *Castle, Darrell (May 7, 2018). [http://www.conservativenewsandviews.com/2018/05/07/clergy/global-collective-new-god/ The Global Collective – Our New God]. ''Conservative News and Views''. Retrieved May 7, 2018. − See also: − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/Christian-globalization.html Should a Christian be opposed to globalization?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved December 26, 2017. − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/one-world-government.html Does the Bible prophesy a one-world government and a one-world currency in the end times?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved December 26, 2017.</ref> − According to the Oxford American Dictionary, '''globalism''' is the advocacy of "the interpretation or planning of economic and foreign policy in relation to events and developments throughout the world." In its most extreme forms, it is sometimes expressed using terms such as "one world," support for a single world government, and/or terms such as "world citizen" or "global citizen." Some globalist groups such as the World Federalist Movement, and some non-Christian religions such as [[Bahai]], actively campaign for world government. "Global" is a currently fashionable term in [[business]], where the term "international" would be more appropriate usage; the term "international" implies business operations between a few countries, while "global" implies worldwide business, making it an adequate term for some forms of business that do operate across the world. Many aspects of globalism fall under the umbrella of [[globalization]], which refers to how local phenomena can become global phenomena.+ + + − The term "global" looks at the world as a single cohesive unit while the term "international" better recognizes the world's different countries, different cultures, different languages, different ethnicities, and national borders. Thus the two terms are not the same thing and using them interchangeably is often incorrect; however, it should be noted that the two are not mutually exclusive. While globalists tend to see themselves as "open" and "progressive", while their opponents want a "closed" society, ''The Economist'', a globalist publication, has admitted this is not the case.<ref>Munro, Neil (March 20, 2018). [https://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2018/03/20/economist-open-society-advocates-are-narcissistic-cosmopolitans/ The Economist: ‘Open Society’ Advocates Are ‘Narcissistic Cosmopolitans’]. ''Breitbart News''. Retrieved March 20, 2018.</ref>+ − Globalism also involves the theory of a "global economy" in which the economic achievements of most if not all nations are interdependent with those of other nations around the world because of international trade. This is possible because of recent technological inventions such as the internet. For example, a farmer in [[Ghana]] can now be insured that he is paid the standard market price for a particular crop because of the standards set in Chicago which he can check with a telephone or internet connection.+ + − Bhagwati (2004) explains how globalization has delivered a better standard of living in less developed countries, and how experiments with protectionist "import substitution" policies have systematically failed. he demonstrates that anti-globalism comprises a discontented brew of anti-capitalism, anti-corporatism, and anti-Americanism. His case that globalization has benefited the poor uses a two-step argument: trade enhances economic growth, and growth reduces poverty. He contrasts the failure of protectionism to deliver prosperity in post-colonial India and other countries with the progress and development in East Asia and other more outward-oriented countries. The growth spurred by globalization has not only expanded the pie but has done so in a way that is "socially benign" and possesses "a human face," says Bhagwati. Bhagwati refutes the liberal argument — heard frequently in the Democrat primary debates — that the U.S. must impose labor and environmental standards on poor countries in any future trade agreements. On the contrary, he shows that U.S. multinationals do not seek out less developed countries with low standards; instead they locate most of their affiliates in other high-wage, high-standard countries, and when they do invest in poor countries, they invariably pay wages and maintain standards far above those prevailing in the local economy. The result is not a "race to the bottom," but a race to the top. An inescapable implication is that if the Democrats succeed in withholding U.S. trade and investment from poor countries because they are poor, it will mean slower growth in those countries: fewer girls studying in school, and more working in farms, factories, and brothels.<ref>See the [http://www.nationalreview.com/books/griswold200406010921.asp review by Daniel T. Griswold, "The Road to Wealth," ''National Review'' April 19, 2004]</ref>+ − ==Developments towards a one world government==+ − + − ==Quotations==+ − *There are four distinct dimensions of globalism: [[economic]], [[military]], [[environmental]] — and [[social]]. [http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=2392] − *Globalization implies neither equity — nor homogenization. In fact, it is equally likely to amplify differences — or at least make people more aware of them. [ibid] − *On the United Nations: Large majorities approve of strengthening the United Nations by giving it the power to have its own standing peacekeeping force, regulate the international arms trade and investigate [[human rights]] abuses. [http://www.infowars.net/articles/june2007/250607study.htm] − ==Alternate definition==+ − Although today the term "globalism" is usually used to describe the liberal "one world" view, there exists a second, lesser-known definition. − The earliest known academic use of the term "globalism" occurred in 1943 in ''The War for Man’s Soul'', a book written by Ernst Jäckh, a professor at [[Columbia University]] who had fled [[Germany]] following the rise of [[Adolf Hitler]]. In his book, Jäckh uses the term "globalism" to describe not a liberal "one world" view, but rather Hitler's aspirations for world domination:+ − {{cquote|"Hitler … reaches out for the sun itself. He has set out to conquer the world to make the globe a German possession! He aims at more than military or economic and political conquest. He has embarked on a “holy war” as the God-sent leader of a “chosen people” bred not for imperialism but for globalism—his world without end."<ref>Zimmer, Ben (March 14, 2018). [https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/03/the-origins-of-the-globalist-slur/555479/ The Origins of the 'Globalist' Slur]. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved August 30, 2018.</ref>}} − This definition has been used (and perhaps abused) by political scientists who view globalism solely in terms of [[geopolitics]] instead of political [[ideology]] and [[economics]]. For example, [[National_Globalism|National Globalist]] political scientist [[Alexander Dugin]] has used the term to describe what he perceives as American hegemony in terms of [[politics]], economics, and [[military]]; and has defended entities normally associated with globalism such as the European Union, [[Islamism]], and [[China]] as being in fact ''victims and potential allies'' against globalism.<ref>Dugin, Alexander (January 18, 2018). [https://www.geopolitica.ru/en/article/globalisation-and-its-enemies Globalisation And Its Enemies]. ''Geopolitica.ru''. Retrieved August 30, 2018.</ref> − + − + − * [[Globalization]]+ − * [[Nationalism]]+ − * [[Euroskepticism]]+ − * [[Cultural Marxism]]+ − * [[United Nations]]+ − * [[Previous Breaking News/United Nations|Articles about the '''United Nations''' from previous "In the news"]]+ − * [[League of Nations]]+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − *[https://www.un.org/ United Nations] - Official site − + − *[http://www.unwatch.org UN Watch]+ − *[http://www.unisevil.com/temp213.htm UN is Evil]+ − *[http://www.aim.org/wls/category/united-nations/ What Liberals Say - Category: United Nations], [[Accuracy In Media]] − * [https://www.americanthinker.com/2009/10/un_agenda_21_coming_to_a_neigh.html American Thinker explanation] − + − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/one-world-government.html Does the Bible prophesy a one-world government and a one-world currency in the end times?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved March 18, 2017.+ − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/new-world-order.html What is the New World Order?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved March 18, 2017. − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/Christian-globalization.html Should a Christian be opposed to globalization?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved March 18, 2017. − *[https://www.gotquestions.org/United-Nations-end-times.html Does the Bible say the United Nations will have a role in the end times?] ''[[GotQuestions]]''. Retrieved March 18, 2017. − + − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − + + + + + + + +
grammar edits
'''Globalization''' [[-ise vs -ize|or]] '''[[wiktionary:globalisation#English|globalisation]]''' is the process of [[foreign relations|interaction]] and integration among people, companies, and governments [[world]]wide. As a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy. <ref> Guttal, S. (2007). Globalisation. Development in Practice, 17(4/5), 523-531/www.jstor.org/stable/25548249</ref> Globalization has grown due to advances in [[transportation]] and [[communication]] technology. With the increased global interactions comes the growth of international [[trade]], [[idea]]s, and [[culture]]. Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that's associated with social and cultural aspects. However, [[wiktionary:conflict|conflicts]] and [[diplomacy]] are also large parts of the [[history of globalization]], and modern globalization.
Economically, globalization involves goods and services, and the economic resources of capital, technology, and data.<ref name="Albrow">Albrow, Martin and Elizabeth King (eds.) (1990). ''Globalization, Knowledge and Society'' London: Sage. {{ISBN|9780803983236}}</ref><ref name="AlbrowKing1990">{{cite book|first1=Martin |last1=Albrow|first2=Elizabeth |last2=King|title=Globalization, knowledge, and society: readings from International sociology|url={{google books|id=lfe1AAAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=1990|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-8323-6}}</ref> Also, with the expansions of global markets liberalize the economic
activities of exchange of goods and funds. Removal of Cross-Border Trades barriers has made formation of
Global Markets more feasible. [https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_23_Special_Issue_December_2011/36.pdf. ''Globalization and its Impacts on the World Economic Development''.]{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The [[steam locomotive]], [[steamship]], [[jet engine]], and [[container ship]]s are some of the advances in the means of [[transport]] while the rise of the [[telegraph]] and its modern offspring, the [[Internet]] and [[mobile phone]]s show development in [[telecommunication]]s infrastructure. All of these improvements have been major factors in globalization and have generated further [[interdependence]] of [[Economy|economic]] and cultural activities around the globe.<ref name="Imagining">{{cite web | url=http://www.elon.edu/e-web/predictions/150/1830.xhtml | title=Imagining the Internet | publisher=Elon University School of Communications | work=History of Information Technologies | accessdate=17 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="Stever_1972">{{cite journal | last1 = Stever | first1 = H. Guyford | year = 1972 | title = Science, Systems, and Society | url = | journal = Journal of Cybernetics | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 1–3 | doi = 10.1080/01969727208542909 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Shaping Globalization|first=Martin|last=Wolf|journal=Finance & Development|volume=51|issue=3|year=2014|pages=22–25|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2014/09/pdf/wolf.pdf}}</ref>
Though many scholars place the [[History of globalization|origins of globalization]] in [[modernity|modern times]], others trace its history long before the [[Europe]]an [[Age of Discovery]] and voyages to the [[New World]], some even to the third millennium BC.<ref name="GL-H-09" /><ref name="GL-H-10">{{cite web |title=Globalization and Global History |page=127 |url=http://58.192.114.227/humanities/sociology/htmledit/uploadfile/system/20110522/20110522005012939.pdf |accessdate=3 July 2012 }}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Large-scale globalization began in the 1820s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=H.|first=O'Rourke, Kevin|last2=G.|first2=Williamson, Jeffrey|date=1 April 2002|title=When did globalisation begin?|url=https://academic.oup.com/ereh/article-abstract/6/1/23/540507|journal=European Review of Economic History|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|doi=10.1017/S1361491602000023|issn=1361-4916|pages=23–50}}</ref> In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectivity of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly. The term ''globalization'' is recent, only establishing its current meaning in the 1970s.<ref name="tandfonline.com">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|last2=Steger|first2=Manfred B.|author-link2=Manfred Steger|date=|year=2014|title=A Genealogy of globalization: The career of a concept|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rglo20/11/4|journal=Globalizations|volume=11|issue=4|pages=417–34|doi=10.1080/14747731.2014.951186|pmid=|access-date=|via=|last1=James|first1=Paul|authorlink1=Paul James (academic)}}</ref>
In 2000, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) identified four basic aspects of globalization: [[trade]] and [[Financial transaction|transactions]], [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[investment]] movements, [[Human migration|migration]] and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge.<ref name="12th April 2000: IMF Publications">International Monetary Fund . (2000). "Globalization: Threats or Opportunity." [http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/041200to.htm 12 April 2000: IMF Publications.]</ref> Further, environmental challenges such as [[global warming]], cross-boundary [[water pollution|water,]] [[air pollution]], and [[overfishing|over-fishing]] of the ocean are linked with globalization.<ref name="Bridges2002">{{cite journal|last=Bridges|first=G.|title=Grounding Globalization: The Prospects and Perils of Linking Economic Processes of Globalization to Environmental Outcomes|journal=Economic Geography|year=2002|volume=78|pages=361–86|doi=10.2307/4140814|issue=3|ref=harv|jstor=4140814}}</ref> Globalizing processes affect and are affected by [[business]] and [[Employment|work]] organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the [[natural environment]]. Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: [[economic globalization]], [[cultural globalization]], and [[political globalization]].<ref name="Ritzer2008-146">{{cite book|url={{google books|id=XKnmvRATtfAC|page=146|plainurl=yes}}|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|last=Babones|first=Salvatore|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|editor-last=Ritzer|editor-first=George|location=|page=146|pages=|chapter=Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues}}</ref>
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==Etymology and usage==
The term ''globalization'' derives from the word ''globalize'', which refers to the emergence of an international network of economic systems.<ref>{{cite web|title=Globalization|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=globalization|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=7 July 2012}}</ref> One of the earliest known usages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publication entitled ''Towards New Education'', where it denoted a holistic view of human experience in education.<ref name=oed>{{cite web|title=Globalization|work=Oxford English Dictionary Online|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50297775?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=Globalization&first=1&max_to_show=10|date=September 2009|accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> The term 'globalization' had been used in its economic sense at least as early as 1981, and in other senses since at least as early as 1944.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/06/business/06levitt.html | title=Theodore Levitt, 81, Who Coined the Term 'Globalization', Is Dead | date=6 July 2006 | accessdate=23 April 2014 | author=Feder, Barnaby J.}}</ref> Theodore Levitt is credited with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream business audience in the later half of the 1980s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired competing definitions and interpretations. Its antecedents date back to the great movements of trade and [[empire]] across [[Asia]] and the [[Indian Ocean]] from the 15th century onward.<ref>Hopkins, A.G. (ed.). (2004). ''Globalization in World History.'' London: Norton, pp. 4–8. {{ISBN|978-0393979428}}</ref><ref name="Bakari13">{{cite journal|last=Bakari|first=Mohamed El-Kamel|title=Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?|journal=New Global Studies|volume=7|issue=3|pages=23–56|issn=1940-0004|doi=10.1515/ngs-2013-021|year=2013}}</ref>
Due to the complexity of the concept, various research projects, articles, and discussions often stay focused on a single aspect of globalization.<ref name="GCSP">Al-Rodhan, R.F. Nayef and Gérard Stoudmann. (2006). [http://www.sustainablehistory.com/articles/definitions-of-globalization.pdf Definitions of the Globalization: A Comprehensive Overview and a Proposed Definition.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119215401/http://www.sustainablehistory.com/articles/definitions-of-globalization.pdf|date=19 November 2012}}</ref>
[[Sociology|Sociologists]] [[Martin Albrow]] and Elizabeth King define globalization as "all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society."<ref name="Albrow" /> In ''The Consequences of Modernity'', [[Anthony Giddens]] writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide [[social relation]]s which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa."<ref>Giddens, Anthony. (1991). ''The Consequences of Modernity'' Cambridge: Polity Press. p. 64. {{ISBN|9780745609232}}</ref> In 1992, [[Roland Robertson]], professor of sociology at the [[University of Aberdeen]] and an early writer in the field, described globalization as "the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole."<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization : social theory and global culture|last=Robertson|first=Roland|publisher=Sage|year=1992|isbn=0803981872|edition= Reprint.|location=London}}</ref>
In ''Global Transformations'', [[David Held]] and his co-writers state:
{{quote|text=Although in its simplistic sense globalization refers to the widening, deepening and speeding up of global interconnection, such a definition begs further elaboration. ... Globalization can be on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At one end of the continuum lie social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can refer to those spatial-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. Without reference to such expansive spatial connections, there can be no clear or coherent formulation of this term. ... A satisfactory definition of globalization must capture each of these elements: extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact.<ref>Held, David; Goldblatt, David; McGrew, Anthony; Perraton, Jonathan (1999). ''Global Transformations'' Cambridge: Polity Press. {{ISBN|9780745614984}}</ref>|sign=|source=|}}
Held and his co-writers' definition of globalization in that same book as "transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows" was called "probably the most widely-cited definition" in the 2014 [[Pankaj Ghemawat|DHL Global Connectiveness Index]].<ref name="DHL"/>
Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson, in his book ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'', states that globalization:
:''Main article: [[One-world government]]''
{{quote|is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.<ref>Larsson, Thomas. (2001). ''The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization'' Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1930865150}}</ref>}}
[[Paul James (academic)|Paul James]] defines globalization with a more direct and historically contextualized emphasis:
<blockquote>Globalization is the extension of social relations across world-space, defining that world-space in terms of the historically variable ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through changing world-time.<ref name=James2005>{{Cite journal | year=2005 | last=James |first=Paul | title= ‘Arguing Globalizations: Propositions Towards an Investigation of Global Formation’ | url= https://www.academia.edu/5246805/Arguing_Globalizations_Propositions_Towards_an_Investigation_of_Global_Formation | journal= Globalizations | volume= 2 | issue= 2 | pages=193–209 | doi=10.1080/14747730500202206}}</ref></blockquote>
[[Manfred Steger]], professor of [[global studies]] and research leader in the [[Global Cities Institute]] at [[RMIT University]], identifies four main empirical [[dimensions of globalization]]: economic, political, cultural, and [[Ecology|ecological]]. A fifth dimension—the ideological—cutting across the other four. The ideological dimension, according to Steger, is filled with a range of [[Norm (social)|norms]], claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself.<ref>{{cite book|title=Globalization: A Very Short Introduction|last=Steger|first=Manfred|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-955226-9|location=New York|page=11}}</ref>
==See also==
James and Steger stated that the concept of globalization "emerged from the intersection of four interrelated sets of '[[Community of practice|communities of practice]]' ([[Étienne Wenger|Wenger]], 1998): academics, journalists, publishers/editors, and librarians."<ref name="tandfonline.com" />{{Rp|424}} They note the term was used "in education to describe the global life of the mind"; in [[international relations]] to describe the extension of the [[European Economic Community|European Common Market]]; and in journalism to describe how the "American Negro and his problem are taking on a global significance".<ref name="tandfonline.com" /> They have also argued that four different forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions.<ref name=James2005/><ref>{{Cite journal|year=2013|title=‘Levels of Subjective Globalization: Ideologies, Imaginaries, Ontologies’|url=https://www.academia.edu/4311113/Levels_of_Subjective_Globalization_Ideologies_Imaginaries_Ontologies|journal=Perspectives on Global Development and Technology|volume=12|issue=1–2|author1=Manfred B. Steger|author2=Paul James}}</ref> According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is agency-extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and [[Polity|polities]], including [[Imperialism|imperial]] agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement of [[Commodity|commodities]] and other objects of exchange. He calls the transmission of ideas, images, knowledge, and information across world-space disembodied globalization, maintaining that it is currently the dominant form of globalization. James holds that this series of distinctions allows for an understanding of how, today, the most embodied forms of globalization such as the movement of [[refugee]]s and [[Immigration|migrants]] are increasingly restricted, while the most disembodied forms such as the circulation of financial instruments and codes are the most [[Deregulation|deregulated]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=|year=2014|title=‘Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens’|url=https://www.academia.edu/7773440/Faces_of_Globalization_and_the_Borders_of_States_From_Asylum_Seekers_to_Citizens|journal=Citizenship Studies|volume=18|issue=2|pages=208–23|doi=10.1080/13621025.2014.886440|pmid=|access-date=|via=|last1=James|first1=Paul}}</ref>
* [[Nationalism vs. globalism]]
The journalist [[Thomas L. Friedman]] popularized the term [[The World Is Flat|"flat world"]], arguing that [[Global trade|globalized trade]], [[outsourcing]], [[supply chain|supply-chaining]], and political forces had permanently changed the world, for better and worse. He asserted that the pace of globalization was quickening and that its impact on business organization and practice would continue to grow.<ref>Friedman, Thomas L. "The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention". ''Emerging: A Reader.'' Ed. Barclay Barrios. Boston: Bedford, St. Martins, 2008. 49</ref>
Economist [[Takis Fotopoulos]] defined "economic globalization" as the opening and deregulation of [[Commodity market|commodity]], [[Capital market|capital]], and [[Labour economics|labor markets]] that led toward present [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] globalization. He used "political globalization" to refer to the emergence of a transnational [[élite]] and a phasing out of the [[nation-state]]. Meanwhile, he used "cultural globalization" to reference the worldwide homogenization of culture. Other of his usages included "[[Ideology|ideological]] globalization", "[[Technology|technological]] globalization", and "social globalization".<ref>Fotopoulos, Takis. (2001). "Globalization, the reformist Left and the Anti-Globalization 'Movement.'" [http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/dn/vol7/takis_globalisation.htm ''Democracy & Nature: The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy'', 7:(2) (July 2001).]</ref>
Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming connected in more and different ways.<ref>Lechner, Frank J. and John Boli (eds.) (2011). ''The Globalization Reader.'' New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.</ref>
"Globophobia" is used to refer to the fear of globalization, though it can also mean the [[balloon phobia|fear of balloons]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Henwood|first1=Doug|title=Beyond Globophobia|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/beyond-globophobia|work=[[The Nation]]|date=1 December 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Ross|title=Globophobia|url=http://www.spectator.co.uk/columnists/12049/globophobia-17/|work=[[The Spectator]]|date=20 March 2004}}</ref><ref name="Ritzer2008">{{cite book|editor=George Ritzer|editorlink=George Ritzer|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XKnmvRATtfAC|page=16}}|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|pages=16–}}</ref>
==History==
{{main|History of globalization}}
{{See also|Timeline of international trade}}
There are both [[Proximate and ultimate causation|distal and proximate causes]] which can be traced in the historical factors affecting globalization. Large-scale globalization began in the 19th century.<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin">{{cite journal |last=O'Rourke |first=Kevin H. |first2=Jeffrey G. |last2=Williamson |year=2002 |title=When Did Globalization Begin? |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=23–50 |doi=10.1017/S1361491602000023 }}</ref>
===Archaic===
[[File:Archaic globalization.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.8|The 13th century world-system, as described by [[Janet Abu-Lughod]]]]
{{Main|Archaic globalization}}
Archaic globalization conventionally refers to a phase in the history of globalization including globalizing events and developments from the time of the earliest [[civilization]]s until roughly the 1600s. This term is used to describe the relationships between communities and [[State (polity)|states]] and how they were created by the geographical spread of ideas and social norms at both local and regional levels.<ref name="M 45">{{cite book|last=Martell|first=Luke|title=The Sociology of Globalization|year=2010|publisher=Policy Press.}}</ref>
In this schema, three main prerequisites are posited for globalization to occur. The first is the idea of Eastern Origins, which shows how [[Western world|Western states]] have adapted and implemented learned principles from the [[Eastern world|East]].<ref name="M 45"/> Without the spread of traditional ideas from the East, Western globalization would not have emerged the way it did. The second is distance. The interactions of states were not on a global scale and most often were confined to Asia, [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and certain parts of Europe.<ref name="M 45"/> With early globalization, it was difficult for states to interact with others that were not within a close proximity. Eventually, technological advances allowed states to learn of others' existence and thus another phase of globalization can occur. The third has to do with inter-dependency, stability, and regularity. If a state is not dependent on another, then there is no way for either state to be mutually affected by the other. This is one of the driving forces behind global connections and trade; without either, globalization would not have emerged the way it did and states would still be dependent on their own [[Production (economics)|production]] and resources to work. This is one of the arguments surrounding the idea of early globalization. It is argued that archaic globalization did not function in a similar manner to modern globalization because states were not as interdependent on others as they are today.<ref name="M 45"/>
Also posited is a "multi-polar" nature to archaic globalization, which involved the active participation of non-Europeans. Because it predated the [[Great Divergence]] of the nineteenth century, where [[Western Europe]] pulled ahead of the rest of the world in terms of [[industrial production]] and [[Output (economics)|economic output]], archaic globalization was a phenomenon that was driven not only by Europe but also by other economically developed [[Old World]] centers such as [[Gujarat]], [[Bengal]], coastal [[China]], and [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite book|last=[[Hans Köchler|Kochler]]|first=Hans|title=Globality versus Democracy: The Changing Nature of International Relations in the Era of Globalization|year=2000|publisher=International Progress Organization|location=Vienna|page=35}}</ref>
[[File:NanbanCarrack.jpg|thumb|right|Portuguese [[carrack]] in [[Nagasaki]], 17th-century Japanese [[Nanban trade|Nanban art]]]]
The German [[Economic history|historical economist]] and sociologist [[Andre Gunder Frank]] argues that a form of globalization began with the rise of trade links between [[Sumer]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in the third millennium [[Common Era|B.C.E.]] This archaic globalization existed during the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic Age]], when commercialized urban centers enveloped the axis of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture that reached from [[India]] to [[Spain]], including [[Alexandria]] and the other [[Alexander the Great|Alexandrine]] cities. Early on, the geographic position of Greece and the necessity of [[import]]ing wheat forced the Greeks to engage in maritime trade. Trade in ancient Greece was largely unrestricted: the state controlled only the supply of grain.<ref name="GL-H-09">Frank, Andre Gunder. (1998). ''ReOrient: Global economy in the Asian age.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0520214743}}</ref>
[[File:Transasia trade routes 1stC CE gr2.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Silk]] Road in the 1st century]]
[[File:New World Domesticated plants.JPG|thumb|Native [[New World]] crops [[Columbian Exchange|exchanged globally]]: Maize, tomato, potato, [[vanilla]], rubber, [[Cacao bean|cacao]], tobacco]]
Trade on the [[Silk Road]] was a significant factor in the development of civilizations from China, [[South Asian history|Indian subcontinent]], [[Persia]], Europe, and [[Arabia]], opening long-distance political and economic interactions between them.<ref>Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 32.</ref> Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, common goods such as salt and sugar were traded as well; and [[religion]]s, [[syncretic]] philosophies, and various technologies, as well as [[disease]]s, also traveled along the Silk Routes. In addition to economic trade, the Silk Road served as a means of carrying out cultural trade among the civilizations along its network.<ref>Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 33.</ref> The movement of people, such as refugees, artists, craftsmen, [[Missionary|missionaries]], robbers, and envoys, resulted in the exchange of religions, art, [[language]]s, and new technologies.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/legacy-silk-road | title = The Legacy of the Silk Road | publisher = Yale Global | date = 25 January 2013}}</ref>
===Early modern===
{{Main|Proto-globalization}}
"[[Early modern period|Early modern]]-" or "proto-globalization" covers a period of the history of globalization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800. The concept of "proto-globalization" was first introduced by [[historian]]s [[A. G. Hopkins]] and [[Christopher Bayly]]. The term describes the phase of increasing trade links and cultural exchange that characterized the period immediately preceding the advent of high "modern globalization" in the late 19th century.<ref>Hopkins, A.G., ed., 2003. Globalization in World History. New York City, NY: Norton. {{ISBN|0-393-97942-3}} pp. 4–5, 7</ref> This phase of globalization was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 16th and 17th centuries, first the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire]]s, and later the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[British Empire]]s. In the 17th century, world trade developed further when [[Chartered company|chartered companies]] like the [[British East India Company]] (founded in 1600) and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (founded in 1602, often described as the first [[multinational corporation]] in which [[stock]] was offered) were established.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. (1965\1999). ''The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint-stock Company 1600–1640 (Vol. 4).'' London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press.</ref>
Early modern globalization is distinguished from modern globalization on the basis of [[expansionism]], the method of managing global trade, and the level of information exchange. The period is marked by such trade arrangements as the [[East India Company]], the shift of [[hegemony]] to Western Europe, the rise of larger-scale conflicts between powerful nations such as the [[Thirty Years' War]], and the rise of newfound commodities—most particularly [[slave trade]]. [[The Triangular Trade]] made it possible for Europe to take advantage of resources within the [[Western Hemisphere]]. The transfer of animal stocks, plant crops, and epidemic diseases associated with [[Alfred W. Crosby]]'s concept of the [[Columbian Exchange]] also played a central role in this process. European, [[Muslim]], Indian, [[Southeast Asia]]n, and Chinese merchants were all involved in early modern trade and communications, particularly in the Indian Ocean region.
[[File:Marshall's flax-mill, Holbeck, Leeds - interior - c.1800.jpg|thumb|During the early 19th century the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] was a global superpower.]]
===Modern===
According to economic historians Kevin H. O'Rourke, Leandro Prados de la Escosura, and Guillaume Daudin, several factors promoted globalization in the period 1815-1870:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-economic-history-of-modern-europe/trade-and-empire/BE789F27408634F4749D61F013897C04|title=Trade and empire (Chapter 4) - The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe|last=|first=|date=|website=Cambridge Core|pages=100–101|language=en|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref>
* The conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars brought in an era of relative peace in Europe.
* Innovations in transportation technology reduced trade costs substantially.
* New industrial military technologies increased the power of European states and the United States, and allowed these powers to forcibly open up markets across the world and extend their empires.
* A gradual move towards greater liberalization in European countries.
During the 19th century, globalization approached its form as a direct result of the [[industrial revolution|Industrial Revolution]]. [[Industrialisation|Industrialization]] allowed [[standardization|standardized]] production of household items using [[economies of scale]] while rapid [[population growth]] created sustained [[demand]] for commodities. In the 19th century, steamships reduced the cost of international transport significantly and [[railroads]] made inland transportation cheaper. The transport revolution occurred some time between 1820 and 1850.<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin" /> More nations embraced [[international trade]].<ref name="When Did Globalization Begin" /> Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century [[imperialism]] such as in [[Scramble for Africa|Africa]] and [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]]. The invention of [[shipping container]]s in 1956 helped advance the globalization of commerce.<ref name="Levinson" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/business/how-the-invention-of-a-box-changed-our-world/2006/06/11/1149964409162.html%0A|title=How the invention of a box changed our world – Business – smh.com.au|last=Gittins|first=Ross|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|accessdate=17 February 2013|date=12 June 2006}}</ref>
After [[World War II]], work by politicians led to the agreements of the [[Bretton Woods Conference]], in which major governments laid down the framework for [[International monetary systems|international monetary policy]], commerce, and finance, and the founding of several [[international institution]]s intended to facilitate economic growth by lowering [[trade barrier]]s. Initially, the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) led to a series of agreements to remove trade restrictions. GATT's successor was the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), which provided a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements and a dispute resolution process. Exports nearly doubled from 8.5% of total gross world product in 1970 to 16.2% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | title = World Exports as Percentage of Gross World Product | publisher=[[Global Policy Forum]] | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080712023541/http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | archivedate = 12 July 2008 | accessdate =11 November 2009}}</ref> The approach of using global agreements to advance trade stumbled with the failure of the [[Doha Development Round]] of trade negotiation. Many countries then shifted to bilateral or smaller multilateral agreements, such as the 2011 [[South Korea–United States Free Trade Agreement]].
Since the 1970s, aviation has become increasingly affordable to [[middle class]]es in [[developed countries]]. [[Open skies]] policies and [[low-cost carrier]]s have helped to bring [[Competition (economics)|competition]] to the [[Market (economics)|market]]. In the 1990s, the growth of low-cost communication networks cut the cost of communicating between different countries. More work can be performed using a computer without regard to location. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design.
[[Student exchange program]]s became popular after [[World War II]], and are intended to increase the participants' understanding and tolerance of other cultures, as well as improving their language skills and broadening their social horizons. Between 1963 and 2006 the number of students studying in a foreign country increased 9 times.<ref name=varghese/>
Since the 1980s, modern globalization has spread rapidly through the expansion of capitalism and neoliberal ideologies<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization: Economics as if all people mattered.|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|last2=Gunseli|first2=Berik|last3=Maria S.|first3=Floro|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|location=New York|pages=95}}</ref>. The implementation of neoliberal policies have allowed for the privatization of public industry, deregulation of laws or policies that interfered with the free flow of the market, as well as cut backs to governmental social services <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Shock Doctrine|last=Klein|first=Naomi|publisher=Vintage|year=2008|isbn=|location=Canada|pages=68}}</ref>. These neoliberal policies were introduced to many developing countries in the form of structural adjustment programs (SAPs) that were implemented by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) <ref name=":0" />. These structural adjustment programs required that the country receiving monetary aid would open it's markets to capitalism, privatize public industry, allow free trade, cut social services like healthcare and education and allow the free movement of giant multinational corporations <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|last2=Deere Diana|first2=Carmen|last3=Kabeer|first3=Naila|date=August 8, 2012|title=“Gender and International Migration: Globalization, Development and Governance”|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.688998.|journal=Feminist Economies|volume=18|pages=1-33|via=JSTOR}}</ref>. These programs allowed the World Bank and the IMF to become global financial market regulators that would promote neoliberalism and the creation of free markets for multinational corporations on a global scale <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rai|first=|date=|title=“The History of International Development: Concepts and Contexts”|url=|journal=Women, Gender and Development Reader|volume=|pages=15|via=}}</ref>.
[[File:Crowded Bund on summer evening.jpg|thumb|With a population of 1.3 billion, [[China]] is the world's second largest economy]]
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly. This slowed down from the 1910s onward due to the World Wars and the [[Cold War]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf|first=Martin|year=2001|title=Will the nation-state survive globalization?|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=80|issue=1|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2001-01-01/will-nation-state-survive-globalization}}</ref> but picked up again in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>Ritzer, George (2011). ''Globalization: The Essentials.'' NY: John Wiley & Sons.</ref>The [[revolutions of 1989]] and subsequent [[liberalization]] in many parts of the world resulted in a significant expansion of global interconnectedness. The migration and movement of people can also be highlighted as a prominent feature of the globalization process. In the period between 1965 and 1990, the proportion of the labor force migrating approximately doubled. Most migration occurred between the [[Developing country|developing countries]] and [[Least developed country|least developed countries]] (LDCs).<ref name =Saggi2002>{{cite journal | last1 = Saggi | first1 = Kamal | year = 2002 | title = Trade, Foreign Direct Investment, and International Technology Transfer: A Survey | url = | journal = World Bank Research Observer | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 191–235 | doi = 10.1093/wbro/17.2.191 }}</ref> As economic integration intensified workers moved to areas with higher wages and most of the developing world oriented toward the international market economy. The collapse of the Soviet Union not only ended the Cold War's division of the world- it also left the United States its sole policeman and an unfettered advocate of free market. It also resulted in the growing prominence of attention focused on the movement of diseases, the proliferation of popular culture and consumer values, the growing prominence of international institutions like the UN, and concerted international action on such issues as the environment and human rights.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World Transformed 1945 to present|last=Hunt|first=Michael H.|publisher=|year=2004|isbn=|location=|page=399}}</ref> Other developments as dramatic were the Internet has become influential in connecting people across the world. {{As of|2012|6}}, more than 2.4 billion people—over a third of the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treese.org/intindex/95-11.htm |title=The Open Market Internet Index |publisher=Treese.org |date=11 November 1995 |accessdate=15 June 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601045949/http://www.treese.org/intindex/95-11.htm |archivedate=1 June 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="stats">{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm|title=World Stats|date=30 June 2012|work=Internet World Stats|publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group}}</ref> Growth of globalization has never been smooth. One influential event was the [[late 2000s recession]], which was associated with lower growth (in areas such as [[International call|cross-border phone calls]] and [[Skype]] usage) or even temporarily negative growth (in areas such as trade) of global interconnectedness.<ref name="Signs of life">{{cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21632514-despite-some-recent-reversals-there-evidence-globalisation-march | title = Signs of life | publisher = The Economist | date = 15 November 2014 }}</ref><ref>Faiola, Anthony. (2009). "A Global Retreat As Economies Dry Up." [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/04/AR2009030404221.html ''The Washington Post'', 5 March 2009.]</ref> The DHL Global Connectedness Index studies four main types of cross-border flow: trade (in both goods and services), information, people (including tourists, students, and migrants), and capital. It shows that the depth of global integration fell by about one-tenth after 2008, but by 2013 had recovered well above its pre-crash peak.<ref name="DHL">{{cite web | url = http://www.dhl.com/content/dam/Campaigns/gci2014/downloads/dhl_gci_2014_study_high.pdf | title = DHL Global Connectedness Index 2014 | publisher = [[DHL]] | date = 11 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Signs of life" /> The report also found a shift of economic activity to [[emerging economies]].<ref name="DHL" />
Globalized society offers a complex web of forces and factors that bring people, cultures, markets, beliefs, and practices into increasingly greater proximity to one another.<ref>Sorrells, Kathryn. (2012). ''Intercultural Communication Globalization and Social Justice''. Thousand Oaks: Sage Pubs. {{ISBN|9781412927444}}</ref>
==Economic globalization==
{{Main|Economic globalization}}[[File:1 singapore city skyline dusk panorama 2011.jpg|thumb|[[Singapore]] is the top country in the [[Global Enabling Trade Report|Enabling Trade Index]] {{as of|2016|lc=y}}.]]
[[File:U.S. Trade Balance (1895–2015) and Trade Policies.png|thumb|upright=1.3|U.S. Trade Balance and Trade Policy (1895–2015)]]
[[File:Real GDP, Real Wages and Trade Policies in the U.S. (1947– 2014).png|thumb|upright=1.3|Real GDP, Real Wages and Trade Policy in the U.S. (1947–2014)]]
[[File:BankingCrises.svg|thumb|left|
Number of countries having a banking crisis in each year since 1800. This is based on ''This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial Folly''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reinhartandrogoff.com|title=This Time is Different - A Book by Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff|first=Anchor Media|last=Works|publisher=reinhartandrogoff.com}}</ref> which covers only 70 countries. The general upward trend might be attributed to many factors. One of these is a gradual increase in the percent of people who receive money for their labor. The dramatic feature of this graph is the virtual absence of banking crises during the period of the [[Bretton Woods agreement]], 1945 to 1971. This analysis is similar to Figure 10.1 in Reinhart and Rogoff (2009). For more details see the help file for "bankingCrises" in the Ecdat package available from the [[R (programming language)|Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN).]] ]]
[[File:Brno, Nákupní centrum Královo Pole (7239).jpg|thumb|Dividends worth CZK 289 billion were paid to the [[Foreign ownership|foreign owners]] of [[Czech Republic|Czech]] companies in 2016.<ref>"[http://www.radio.cz/en/section/business/czech-foreign-owned-companies-take-second-biggest-dividend-yield-in-2017report Czech foreign owned companies take second biggest dividend yield in 2017:report]". ''[[Radio Prague]].'' 7 March 2018.</ref>]]
Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-[[border]] movement of goods, services, technology, and capital.<ref name="Joshi, Rakesh Mohan 2009">Joshi, Rakesh Mohan, (2009) International Business, Oxford University Press, New Delhi and New York {{ISBN|0-19-568909-7}}.</ref> Whereas the globalization of business is centered around the diminution of international trade regulations as well as [[tariff]]s, taxes, and other impediments that suppresses global trade, economic globalization is the process of increasing [[economic integration]] between countries, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.<ref>Riley, T: "Year 12 Economics", p. 9. Tim Riley Publications, 2005</ref> Depending on the paradigm, economic globalization can be viewed as either a positive or a negative phenomenon. Economic globalization comprises: Globalization of production; which refers to the obtention of goods and services from a particular source from different locations around the globe to benefit from difference in cost and quality. Likewise, it also comprises globalization of markets; which is defined as the union of different and separate markets into a massive global marketplace. Economic globalization also includes<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/864808614|title=International business: competing in the global marketplace|last=Hill|first=Charles W. L.|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]|year=2014|isbn=9780078112775|edition= 10th|location=New York, NY|pages=|oclc=864808614}}</ref> competition, technology, and corporations and industries.<ref name="Joshi, Rakesh Mohan 2009"/>
Current globalization trends can be largely accounted for by developed economies integrating with less developed economies by means of [[foreign direct investment]], the reduction of trade barriers as well as other economic reforms, and, in many cases, [[immigration]]. more apparently, before the phase of Globalization, United States of America was a dominant country which held the essential economic power in world export. But after the advent of
globalization, Germany, Japan, South Korea and China have significantly become serious counterparts by challenging the position of America. [https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_23_Special_Issue_December_2011/36.pdf. ''Globalization and its Impacts on the World Economic Development
''.]{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Albeit some countries in the world are for the idea that one country can economically dominate others and govern the entire world, now the
institutions like United Nations Organization, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and World
Bank are considerably share the economic power and monitoring the balance of power distribution by regulating the relationship between different
countries and governing issues of Justice, Human relations or political factors. [https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_23_Special_Issue_December_2011/36.pdf.'' Globalization and its Impacts on the World Economic Development ''.]{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
[[International standard]]s have made trade in goods and services more efficient. An example of such standard is the [[intermodal container]]. [[Containerization]] dramatically reduced transport of its costs, supported the post-war boom in [[international trade]], and was a major element in globalization.<ref name="Levinson">{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|title=Sample Chapter for Levinson, M.: The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger.|last=Levinson|first=Marc|work=[[The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger]]|publisher=Princeton University Press|accessdate=17 February 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122131825/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9383.html|archivedate=22 January 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[International Organization for Standardization]] is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national [[standards organizations]].
A [[multinational corporation]] or worldwide enterprise<ref name="pitelis">{{cite book|url={{google books|id=mXjeiQYR088C|plainurl=yes}}|title=The nature of the transnational firm|last=Pitelis|first=Christos|author2=Roger Sugden|publisher=Routledge|year=2000|isbn=0-415-16787-6|location=|page=H72|pages=}}</ref> is an organization that owns or controls production of goods or services in one or more countries other than their home country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ355/choi/mul.htm|title=Multinational Corporations|publisher=}}</ref> It can also be referred as an international corporation, a transnational corporation, or a stateless corporation.<ref>Roy D. Voorhees, Emerson L. Seim, and John I. Coppett, "Global Logistics and Stateless Corporations," ''Transportation Practitioners Journal'' 59, 2 (Winter 1992): 144–51.</ref>
A [[free-trade area]] is the region encompassing a [[trade bloc]] whose member countries have signed a [[Free trade|free-trade]] agreement (FTA). Such agreements involve cooperation between at least two countries to reduce trade barriers{{snd}} [[import quota]]s and [[tariff]]s{{snd}} and to increase trade of [[good (economics)|goods]] and services with each other.<ref>{{cite book
| last = O'Sullivan
| first = Arthur
| authorlink = Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)
| first2 = Steven M. | last2 = Sheffrin
| title = Economics: Principles in Action
| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
| year = 2003
| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
| page = 453
| isbn = 0-13-063085-3}}</ref>
If people are also free to move between the countries, in addition to a free-trade agreement, it would also be considered an [[open border]].
Arguably the most significant free-trade area in the world is the [[European Union]], a [[Political union|politico]]-[[economic union]] of [[Member state of the European Union|{{EUnum}} member states]] that are primarily located in [[Europe]]. The EU has developed [[European Single Market]] through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the [[Single market|free movement of people, goods, services, and capital]] within the internal market,<ref name="Europa Internal Market">{{cite web|title=The EU Single Market: Fewer barriers, more opportunities |publisher=Europa web portal |author=European Commission |url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |accessdate=27 September 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001122551/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm |archivedate=1 October 2007 |df= }}<br />{{cite web|title=Activities of the European Union: Internal Market |publisher=Europa web portal |url=http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm |accessdate=29 June 2007 }}</ref>
[[Trade facilitation]] looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of goods across national borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and maximise efficiency while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives.
Global trade in services is also significant. For example, in [[India]], [[business process outsourcing]] has been described as the "primary engine of the country's development over the next few decades, contributing broadly to [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth, employment growth, and poverty alleviation".<ref name="Kuruvilla 2008 39–72">{{cite journal|last=Kuruvilla |first=Sarosh |last2=Ranganathan |first2=Aruna |title=Economic Development Strategies And Macro- And Micro-Level Human Resource Policies: The Case Of India's "Outsourcing" Industry|journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review|date=October 2008|volume=62|issue=1|pages=39–72|ref=harv |doi=10.1177/001979390806200103|url=http://ilr.sagepub.com/content/62/1/39.full.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15777592?story_id=E1_TVSSSVJN|accessdate=16 April 2011|title=Outsourcing to Africa: The world economy calls | The Economist|date=16 April 2011}}</ref>
[[William I. Robinson]]'s theoretical approach to globalization is a critique of Wallerstein's World Systems Theory. He believes that the global capital experienced today is due to a new and distinct form of globalization which began in the 1980s. Robinson argues not only are economic activities expanded across national boundaries but also there is a transnational fragmentation of these activities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=William I.|title=Globalization and the sociology of Immanuel Wallerstein: A critical appraisal|journal=International Sociology|volume=1–23}}</ref> One important aspect of Robinson's globalization theory is that production of goods are increasingly global. This means that one pair of shoes can be produced by six different countries, each contributing to a part of the production process.
{{Clear}}
==Cultural globalization==
[[File:Shakira Rio 03.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Shakira]], a Colombian multilingual singer-songwriter, playing outside her home country]]
{{Main|Cultural globalization}}
Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations.<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Paul|title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism|year=2006|publisher=Sage Publications|location=London|url=https://www.academia.edu/1642214/Globalism_Nationalism_Tribalism_Bringing_Theory_Back_In_author_Sage_Publications_London_2006}}</ref> This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, [[popular culture]] media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization which have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the globe. The circulation of cultures enables individuals to partake in extended social relations that cross national and regional borders. The creation and expansion of such social relations is not merely observed on a material level. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing interconnectedness among different populations and cultures.<ref>Manfred B. Steger and Paul James, ‘Ideologies of Globalism’, in Paul James and Manfred B. Steger, eds, [https://uws.academia.edu/PaulJames Globalization and Culture: Vol. 4, Ideologies of Globalism], Sage Publications, London, 2010. {{Cite book|title=The Anthropology of Globalization|last1=Inda|first1=Jonathan|last2=Rosaldo|first2=Renato|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2002|chapter=Introduction: A World in Motion}}</ref>
[[Cross-cultural communication]] is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures. [[Intercultural communication]] is a related field of study.
[[Cultural diffusion]] is the spread of [[culture|cultural]] items—such as [[idea]]s, [[fashion|styles]], [[religion]]s, [[technology|technologies]], [[contact linguistics|languages]] etc.
Cultural globalization has increased cross-cultural contacts, but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once-isolated communities. For example, [[sushi]] is available in Germany as well as Japan, but [[Disneyland Paris|Euro-Disney]] outdraws the city of Paris, potentially reducing demand for "authentic" French pastry.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v25n3/globalization.pdf |title=Globalization and Culture |last1=Cowen |first1=Tyler |last2=Barber |first2=Benjamin |journal=Cato Policy Report |date=May–June 2003 |accessdate=15 March 2017|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>Nadeem, S (2009) [http://nadeem.commons.gc.cuny.edu/files/2010/04/CS_Nadeem.pdf Macaulay's (Cyber) Children: The Cultural Politics of Outsourcing in India]. Cultural Sociology</ref><ref>Hacker, Violaine (2011), "Building Medias Industry while promoting a community of values in the globalization: from quixotic choices to pragmatic boon for EU Citizens", Politické Védy-Journal of Political Science, Slovakia</ref> Globalization's contribution to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as alleged by [[Existentialism|existentialists]] such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Albert Camus]]. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities by spreading pop culture, particularly via the Internet and satellite television.
Religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize, being spread by force, migration, [[evangelism|evangelists]], imperialists, and traders. [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], and more recently sects such as [[Mormonism]] are among those religions which have taken root and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.<ref>McAlister, Elizabeth. 2005.
"[http://wesscholar.wesleyan.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=div2facpubs Globalization and the Religious Production of Space.]" ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', Vol. 44, No 3, September 2005, 249–255.</ref>
[[File:McDonalds in St Petersburg 2004.JPG|left|thumb|McDonald's is commonly seen as a symbol of Globalization, often called [[McDonaldization]] of global society]]
Globalization has strongly influenced [[sports]].<ref>[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/sport.jsp Globalization and Sport: A Review by Susan Froetschel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223201908/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/sport.jsp|date=23 December 2016}}</ref> For example, the modern [[Olympic Games]] has [[athletes]] from more than 200 nations participating in a [[multi-sport event|variety of competitions]].<ref name="EB">{{cite web | title= Overview of Olympic Games | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428005/Olympic-Games | work=Encyclopædia Britannica | accessdate=4 June 2008}}</ref> The [[FIFA World Cup]] is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the entire population of the planet watched the [[2006 FIFA World Cup Final]].<ref name="2006coverage">{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/marketing/news/newsid=111247/index.html |title=2006 FIFA World Cup broadcast wider, longer and farther than ever before |work=FIFA.com |publisher=[[FIFA|Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] |date=6 February 2007 |accessdate=11 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="Dunmore2011">{{cite book|first=Tom |last=Dunmore|title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer|url={{google books|id=9j1wbp2t1usC|page=235|plainurl=yes}}|date=16 September 2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5|pages=235|quote=The World Cup is now the most-watched sporting event in the world on television, above even the Olympic Games.}}</ref><ref name="DobsonGoddard2011">{{cite book|first1=Stephen |last1=Dobson|first2=John|last2= Goddard|title=The Economics of Football|url={{google books|id=GxyG0XXdvR4C|page=407|plainurl=yes}}|date=10 February 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49630-8|pages=407–|quote=The World Cup is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world: the estimated cumulative television audience for the 2006 World Cup in Germany was 26.2 billion, an average of 409 million viewers per match.}}</ref><ref name="Wong2012">{{cite book|first=Glenn M. |last=Wong|title=The Comprehensive Guide to Careers in Sports|url={{google books|id=qEELS7T_Tm0C|page=144|plainurl=yes}}|date=8 March 2012|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-1-4496-0203-1|pages=144–|quote=The World Cup is the most-watched sporting event in the world. In 2006, more than 30 billion viewers in 214 countries watched the World Cup on television, and more than 3.3 million spectators attended the 64 matches of the tournament.}}</ref>
The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices including traditional music can be lost or turned into a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to collect, record, or transcribe repertoires before melodies are assimilated or modified, while local musicians may struggle for [[authenticity in art|authenticity]] and to preserve local musical traditions. Globalization can lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.<ref>Clayton, Thomas. 2004. "Competing Conceptions of Globalization" Revisited: Relocating the Tension between World-Systems Analysis and Globalization Analysis. In: Comparative Education Review, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 274–94.</ref>
Music has an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization. Music genres such as [[jazz]] and [[reggae]] began locally and later became international phenomena. Globalization gave support to the [[world music]] phenomenon by allowing music from developing countries to reach broader audiences.<ref>Throsby, David. (2002.) "The music industry in the new millennium: Global and Local Perspectives." [https://web.archive.org/web/20110812233223/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/25428/11066604353The_Music_Industry_in_the_new_Millenium.pdf/The+Music+Industry+in+the+new+Millenium.pdf Paper prepared for The Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity Division of Arts and Cultural Enterprise UNESCO, Paris.]</ref> Though the term "World Music" was originally intended for ethnic-specific music, globalization is now expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world fusion", "global fusion", "ethnic fusion",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/ethnic-fusion-d224 |title=Ethnic fusion Music |publisher=Allmusic |accessdate=}}</ref> and [[worldbeat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/worldbeat-d248 |title=Worldbeat |publisher=Allmusic |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/world_fusion_800/en_US#contents_top |title=World Fusion Music |publisher=worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com |accessdate= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314022819/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/view/page.basic/genre/content.genre/world_fusion_800/en_US#contents_top |archivedate=14 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
[[File:Thai_curry_paste_at_the_market_so_good_I_brought_some_home_(3195324838).jpg|thumb|Use of [[chili pepper]] has spread from the Americas to cuisines around the world, including [[Thailand]], [[Korea]], [[China]], and [[Italy]].<ref>[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/chili.jsp "Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231072755/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/about/chili.jsp|date=31 December 2016}}, History of Globalization, YaleGlobal Online.</ref>]]
[[Pierre Bourdieu|Bourdieu]] claimed that the perception of consumption can be seen as self-identification and the formation of identity. Musically, this translates into each individual having their own musical identity based on likes and tastes. These likes and tastes are greatly influenced by culture, as this is the most basic cause for a person's wants and behavior. The concept of one's own culture is now in a period of change due to globalization. Also, globalization has increased the interdependency of political, personal, cultural, and economic factors.<ref>Beard, David and Keneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. London and New York: Routledge.</ref>
A 2005 [[UNESCO]] report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/cscl/IntlFlows_EN.pdf |title=International Flows of Selected Goods and Services |format=PDF |accessdate=31 July 2010}}</ref> showed that cultural exchange is becoming more frequent from Eastern Asia, but that Western countries are still the main exporters of cultural goods. In 2002, China was the third largest exporter of cultural goods, after the UK and US. Between 1994 and 2002, both North America's and the [[European Union]]'s shares of cultural exports declined while Asia's cultural exports grew to surpass North America. Related factors are the fact that Asia's population and area are several times that of North America. Americanization is related to a period of high political American clout and of significant growth of America's shops, markets and objects being brought into other countries.
Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As a dominating country's culture is introduced into a receiving country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to [[Westernization]] or Americanization of culture, where the dominating cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://aleteia.org/2018/04/11/why-do-we-need-religion-in-a-globalized-world/|title=Why do we need religion in a globalized world?|date=11 April 2018|work=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture|access-date=12 April 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>
Globalization is a diverse phenomenon which relates to a multilateral political world and to the increase of cultural objects and markets between countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the [[Cultural pluralism|plurality]] of the impact of cultural globalization.<ref>Ghosh, Biswajit (2011). [http://jds.sagepub.com/content/27/2/153.abstract "Cultural Changes and Challenges in the Era of Globalisation]." ''Journal of Developing Societies'', SAGE Publications, 27(2): 153–75.</ref>
[[Transculturalism]] is defined as "seeing oneself in the other".<ref name="CS">Cuccioletta, Donald. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160417212459/http://www.canadian-studies.net/lccs/LJCS/Vol_17/Cuccioletta.pdf Multiculturalism or Transculturalism: Towards a Cosmopolitan Citizenship.], London Journal of Canadian Studies 2001/2002 Vol. 17, Plattsburgh State University of New York, Interdisciplinary Research Group on the Americas</ref> Transcultural<ref name=FD/> is in turn described as "extending through all [[human culture]]s"<ref name="FD">[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/transcultural transcultural], thefreedictionary.com</ref> or "involving, encompassing, or combining elements of more than one [[culture]]".<ref name="YD">[http://www.yourdictionary.com/transcultural transcultural], yourdictionary.com</ref>
==Political globalization==
{{Main|Political globalization}}
[[File:67º Período de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|The [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] in [[New York City]]]]
In general, globalization may ultimately reduce the importance of [[nation state]]s. [[Supranational]] institutions such as the [[European Union]], the [[WTO]], the [[G8]] or the [[International Criminal Court]] replace or extend national functions to facilitate international agreement.<ref name="Scholte, 2005">{{cite book|last=Scholte|first=Jan-Aart|title=Globalization: A Critical Introduction |chapter=Chapter 6: Globalization and Governance|year=2005|publisher=Palgrave}}</ref> This could ultimately lead to a [[global union]], based on the [[European Union]] model.<ref name="mcclintock1">John McClintock (2010). "The Uniting of Nations: An Essay on Global Governance (3rd ed. revised and updated)". Publisher: P.I.E. Peter Lang.</ref>
[[Intergovernmentalism]] is a term in [[political science]] with two meanings. The first refers to a theory of regional integration originally proposed by [[Stanley Hoffmann]]; the second treats states and the national government as the primary factors for integration.<ref name="japss2009">{{cite web|title=The Contribution of the Neofunctionalist and Intergovernmentalist Theories to the Evolution of the European Integration Process|url=http://www.japss.org/upload/14._Mogaarticle.pdf|publisher=Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences|accessdate=21 May 2012|author=Teodor Lucian Moga|year=2009}}</ref>
[[Multi-level governance]] is an approach in [[political science]] and [[public administration theory]] that originated from studies on [[European integration]]. Multi-level governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emergent global political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement between the domestic and international levels of authority.
Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. [[Multiple citizenship]], also called dual citizenship or multiple nationality or dual nationality, is a person's [[citizenship]] status, in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen of more than one [[Sovereign state|state]] under the laws of those states.
Increasingly, [[non-governmental organization]]s influence public policy across national boundaries, including [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian aid]] and [[International development|developmental efforts]].<ref name="globall">Pawel Zaleski ''Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector'', [in:] Gawin, Dariusz & Glinski, Piotr [ed.]: "Civil Society in the Making", IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006</ref> Philanthropic organizations with global missions are also coming to the forefront of humanitarian efforts; charities such as the [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]], [[Accion International]], the Acumen Fund (now [[Acumen Fund|Acumen]]) and the [[Echoing Green]] have combined the [[business model]] with [[philanthropy]], giving rise to business organizations such as the [[Global Philanthropy Group]] and new associations of philanthropists such as the [[Global Philanthropy Forum]]. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation projects include a current multibillion-dollar commitment to funding immunizations in some of the world's more impoverished but rapidly growing countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Vaccine-Delivery|title=Vaccine Delivery|work=Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation}}</ref> The [[Hudson Institute]] estimates total private philanthropic flows to developing countries at [[US$]]59 billion in 2010.<ref>[http://www.hudson.org/files/publications/2012IndexofGlobalPhilanthropyandRemittances.pdf ''The Index of Global Philanthropy and Remittances 2012''. Hudson Institute Center for Global Prosperity.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730155329/http://www.hudson.org/files/publications/2012IndexofGlobalPhilanthropyandRemittances.pdf|date=30 July 2012}}</ref>
As a response to globalization, some countries have embraced [[isolationism|isolationist]] policies. For example, the [[North Korea]]n government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not wish them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.<ref name=nkr>{{cite web|url=http://www.northkoreanrefugees.com/2008-exodus.htm |title=North Korean Refugees NGO |publisher=Northkoreanrefugees.com |date=20 October 2008 |accessdate=23 August 2010}}</ref><ref name=unhcr>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,PRK,4562d8cf2,487ca236c0,0.html |title=UNHCR Freedom in the World 2008 – North Korea |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=2 July 2008 |accessdate=23 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018022844/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CPRK%2C4562d8cf2%2C487ca236c0%2C0.html |archivedate=18 October 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>
=== Globalization and gender ===
Globalization has been a gendered process where giant multinational corporations have outsourced jobs to low-wage, low skilled, quota free economies like the ready made garment industry in Bangladesh where poor women make up the majority of labor force.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title="Rags, Riches and Women Workers: Export-Oriented Garment Manufacturing in Bangladesh," from Linking Women Producers and Workers with Global Markets|last=Kabeer|first=Nalia|last2=Simeen|last3=Mahmud|publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat|year=2004|isbn=0-85092-798-6|location=London|pages=137, 147, 148, 150, 152}}</ref> Despite a large proportion of women workers in the garment industry, women are still heavily underemployed compared to men.<ref name=":1" /> Most women that are employed in the garment industry come from the countryside of Bangladesh triggering migration of women in search of garment work.<ref name=":1" /> It is still unclear as to whether or not access to paid work for women where it didn't exist before has empowered them.<ref name=":1" /> The answers varied depending on whether it is the employers perspective or the workers and how they view their choices.<ref name=":1" /> Women workers did not see the garment industry as economically sustainable for them in the long run due to long hours standing and poor working conditions.<ref name=":1" /> Although women workers did show significant autonomy over their personal lives including their ability to negotiate with family, more choice in marriage, and being valued as a wage earner in the family. This did not translate into workers being able to collectively organize themselves in order to negotiate a better deal for themselves at work.<ref name=":1" />
Another example of outsourcing in manufacturing includes the Maquiladora industry in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico where poor women make up the majority of the labor force.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=“The Dialectics of Still Life: Murder, Women, and Disposability,” from Disposable Women and Other Myths of Global Capitalism.|last=Wright W.|first=Melissa|publisher=Rouledge|year=2007|isbn=|location=New York|pages=73, 82, 83}}</ref> Women in the Maquiladora industry have produced high levels of turnover not staying long enough to be trained compared to men.<ref name=":2" /> A gendered two tiered system within the Maquiladora industry has been created that focuses on training and worker loyalty.<ref name=":2" /> Women are seen as being untrainable, placed in un-skilled, low wage jobs, while men are seen as more trainable with less turnover rates, and placed in more high skilled technical jobs.<ref name=":2" /> The idea of training has become a tool used against women to blame them for their high turnover rates which also benefit the industry keeping women as temporary workers.<ref name=":2" />
==Other dimensions==
Scholars also occasionally discuss other, less common dimensions of globalization, such as [[environmental globalization]] (the internationally coordinated practices and regulations, often in the form of international treaties, regarding environmental protection)<ref name="Zimmerer2006-1">{{cite book|first=Karl S. |last=Zimmerer|title=Globalization & New Geographies of Conservation|url={{google books|id=UdLK-UGj7YkC|page=1|plainurl=yes}}|year=2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-98344-8|page=1}}</ref> or [[military globalization]] (growth in global extent and scope of security relationships).<ref name="Krishnan2016">{{cite book|first=Armin |last=Krishnan|title=War as Business: Technological Change and Military Service Contracting|url={{google books|id=1ymrCwAAQBAJ|page=PA157|plainurl=yes}}|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-00049-5|page=157}}</ref> Those dimensions, however, receive much less attention the three described above, as academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: [[economic globalization]], [[cultural globalization]] and [[political globalization]].<ref name="Ritzer2008-146"/>
===Movement of people===
[[File:World-airline-routemap-2009.png|thumb|Scheduled [[airline]] traffic in 2009]]
An essential aspect of globalization is movement of people, and state-boundary limits on that movement have changed across history.<ref>{{Cite journal | year= 2014 | last1= James| first1= Paul | authorlink1= Paul James (academic) | title= Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens | url= https://www.academia.edu/7773440/Faces_of_Globalization_and_the_Borders_of_States_From_Asylum_Seekers_to_Citizens | journal= Citizenship Studies | volume= 18 | issue= 2 | pages= 208–23.}}</ref> The movement of tourists and business people opened up over the last century. As transportation technology improved, travel time and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. For example, travel across the [[Atlantic ocean]] used to take up to 5 weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days.<ref name="autogenerated2">Boustan, Adain May . "Fertility and Immigration." UCLA. 15 January 2009.</ref> Today, modern aviation has made long-distance transportation quick and affordable.
[[Tourism]] is travel for pleasure. The developments in technology and transport infrastructure, such as [[Wide-body aircraft|jumbo jets]], [[Low-cost carrier|low-cost airlines]], and more [[accessible tourism|accessible]] [[airport]]s have made many types of tourism more affordable. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012.<ref name="Barom2012">{{cite journal|url=http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom13_01_jan_excerpt_0.pdf |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer |publisher=[[World Tourism Organization]] |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer |date=January 2013 |volume=11 |issue=1 |accessdate=9 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228162347/http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom13_01_jan_excerpt_0.pdf |archivedate=28 February 2013 |df= }}</ref>
A [[Travel visa|visa]] is a conditional authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and temporarily remain within, or to leave that country. Some countries – such as those in the [[Schengen Area]] – have agreements with other countries allowing each other's citizens to travel between them without visas. The [[World Tourism Organization]] announced that the number of tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level ever in 2015.<ref>[http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/travel/visa-requirements-for-tourism-eased-around-the-world-says-un-agency-365446391.html Visa requirements for tourism eased around the world, says UN agency]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2015visaopennessreportonline.pdf |title=Visa Openness Report 2015 January 2016 |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123123959/http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/2015visaopennessreportonline.pdf |archivedate=23 January 2016 |df=dmy }}</ref>
[[Immigration]] is the international movement of people into a destination [[country]] of which they are not natives or where they do not possess [[citizenship]] in order to settle or reside there, especially as [[Permanent residency|permanent residents]] or [[Naturalization|naturalized]] citizens, or to take-up [[employment]] as a [[migrant worker]] or temporarily as a [[foreign worker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/immigration|title=immigration|publisher=Oxford University Press|website=OxfordDictionaries.com|accessdate=11 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immigration| title=immigrate|publisher=Merriam-Webster, In.|website=Merriam-Webster.com|accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="RCUK">{{cite web|title=Who's who: Definitions|url=http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy_research/the_truth_about_asylum/the_facts_about_asylum|first=|last=|publisher=Refugee Council|location=London, England|year=2016|access-date= 7 September 2015}}</ref>
According to the [[International Labour Organization]], {{as of|2014|lc=y}} there were an estimated 232 million international migrants in the world (defined as persons outside their country of origin for 12 months or more) and approximately half of them were estimated to be economically active (i.e. being employed or seeking employment).<ref>{{cite web|title=Mainstreaming of Migration in Development Policy and Integrating Migration in the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---migrant/documents/genericdocument/wcms_220084.pdf|website=www.ilo.org}}</ref> International movement of labor is often seen as important to economic development. For example, [[freedom of movement for workers in the European Union]] means that people can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country.
[[File:BorisOC2010.jpg|thumb|right|2010 [[London Youth Games]] opening ceremony. About 69% of children born in [[London]] in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad.<ref>"[https://www.ft.com/content/41b5b302-b7e5-11e6-ba85-95d1533d9a62 Most London babies have foreign-born parent]". ''[[Financial Times]]''. 1 December 2016.</ref>]]
Globalization is associated with a dramatic rise in [[international education]]. More and more students are seeking higher education in foreign countries and many [[international student]]s now consider overseas study a stepping-stone to permanent residency within a country.<ref name="gribble">{{cite journal | last1 = Gribble | first1 = C | year = 2008 | title = Policy options for managing international student migration: the sending country's perspective | url = | journal = Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 25–39 | doi=10.1080/13600800701457830}}</ref> The contributions that [[foreign student]]s make to host nation economies, both culturally and financially has encouraged major players to implement further initiatives to facilitate the arrival and integration of overseas students, including substantial amendments to [[immigration]] and visa policies and procedures.<ref name="varghese">Varghese, N.V. 2008, 'Globalization of higher education and cross-border student mobility', International Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO</ref>
A [[transnational marriage]] is a [[marriage]] between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different countries, including those related to [[citizenship]] and culture, which add complexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships.
In an age of increasing globalization, where a growing number of people have ties to networks of people and places across the globe, rather than to a current geographic location, people are increasingly marrying across national boundaries. Transnational marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of people.
===Movement of information===
{{See also|Internet}}
{{Internet users by region}}
Before electronic communications, long-distance communications relied on [[mail]]. Speed of global communications was limited by the maximum speed of courier services (especially horses and ships) until the mid-19th century. The [[electric telegraph]] was the first method of instant long-distance communication. For example, before the first transatlantic cable, communications between Europe and the Americas took weeks because ships had to carry mail across the ocean. The first [[transatlantic telegraph cable|transatlantic cable]] reduced communication time considerably, allowing a message and a response in the same day. Lasting transatlantic telegraph connections were achieved in the 1865–1866. The first wireless telegraphy transmitters were developed in 1895.
The [[Internet]] has been instrumental in connecting people across geographical boundaries. For example, [[Facebook]] is a [[social networking service]] which has more than [[List of virtual communities with more than 100 million active users|1.65 billion monthly active users]] {{as of|2016|3|31|lc=y}}.<ref name="Facebook-Newsroom">{{cite web|title=Company Info – Facebook Newsroom|url=https://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/|publisher=Facebook}}</ref>
Globalization can be spread by Global journalism which provides massive information and relies on the internet to interact, "makes it into an everyday routine to investigate how people and their actions, practices, problems, life conditions etc. in different parts of the world are interrelated. possible to assume that global threats such as climate change precipitate the further establishment of global journalism."<ref>{{cite journal |first=Peter |last=Berglez |date=2008 |title=WHAT IS GLOBAL JOURNALISM? |journal=Journalism Studies |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=845–858 <!--was originally "5" but that's confusing--> |doi=10.1080/14616700802337727}}</ref>
==Measurement==
{{See also|List of globalization-related indices}}
One index of globalization is the ''KOF Index of Globalization'', which measures three important dimensions of globalization: economic, social, and political.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ | title=KOF Index of Globalization | publisher=The KOF Swiss Economic Institute | work=ethz.ch | date=2014}}</ref> Another is the [[A.T. Kearney]] / [[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]] Globalization Index.<ref>[http://www.atkearney.com/shared_res/pdf/Globalization-Index_FP_Nov-Dec-06_S.pdf 16 October 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080306223527/http://www.atkearney.com/shared_res/pdf/Globalization-Index_FP_Nov-Dec-06_S.pdf|date=6 March 2008}}. Data for the year 2006. No longer published.</ref>
{|
|-
| style="width:50%;"|
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"
|+ <br />2014 KOF Index of Globalization
|-
! Rank !! Country
|-
|1||[[Ireland]]
|-
|2||[[Belgium]]
|-
|3||[[Netherlands]]
|-
|4||[[Austria]]
|-
|5||[[Singapore]]
|-
|6||[[Denmark]]
|-
|7||[[Sweden]]
|-
|8||[[Portugal]]
|-
|9||[[Hungary]]
|-
|10||[[Finland]]
|}
| style="width:5%;"|
| style="width:50%;"|
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ 2006 A.T. Kearney / Foreign Policy Magazine<br />Globalization Index
|-
!Rank || Country
|-
|1|| [[Singapore]]
|-
|2||[[Switzerland]]
|-
|3||[[United States]]
|-
|4||[[Ireland]]
|-
|5||[[Denmark]]
|-
|6||[[Canada]]
|-
|7||[[Netherlands]]
|-
|8||[[Australia]]
|-
|9||[[Austria]]
|-
|10||[[Sweden]]
|}
|}
Measurements of economic globalization typically focus on variables such as [[trade]], [[Foreign Direct Investment]] (FDI), [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP), [[portfolio investment]], and [[income]]. However, newer indices attempt to measure globalization in more general terms, including variables related to political, social, cultural, and even environmental aspects of globalization.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Vujakovic | first1 = Petra | year = 2010 | title = How to Measure Globalization? A New Globalization Index (NGI) | url = | journal = Atlantic Economic Journal | volume = 38 | issue = 2| page = 237 | doi = 10.1007/s11293-010-9217-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=1 April 2016|title=Energy: The missing link in globalization|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296486356|journal="Energy Research & Social Science"|volume=14|page=122|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2016.01.009}}</ref>
==Support and criticism==
{{See also|Criticisms of globalization}}
Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied widely with a history as long as extraterritorial contact and trade. [[philosophy|Philosophical]] differences regarding the costs and benefits of such processes give rise to a broad-range of [[ideology|ideologies]] and [[social movements]]. Proponents of [[economic growth]], [[economic expansion|expansion]] and [[economic development|development]], in general, view globalizing processes as desirable or necessary to the well-being of human [[society]].<ref name=Sen1970>Sen, Amartya K. (1970). ''Collective choice and social welfare.'' San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day.</ref>
Antagonists view one or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well-being on a global or local scale;<ref name=Sen1970 /> this includes those who social or [[natural environment|natural]] [[sustainability]] of long-term and continuous economic expansion, the social [[structural inequality]] caused by these processes, and the [[Colonialism|colonial]], [[Imperialism|imperialistic]], or [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[ethnocentrism]], [[cultural assimilation]] and [[cultural appropriation]] that underlie such processes.
Globalization tends to bring people into contact with foreign people and cultures. [[Xenophobia]] is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia|title=Definition of xenophobia in English from the Oxford dictionary|work=oxforddictionaries.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/xenophobia|title=Define Xenophobia at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com}}</ref> Xenophobia can manifest itself in many ways involving the relations and [[perception]]s of an [[ingroup]] towards an [[Outgroup (sociology)|outgroup]], including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity.<ref name="auto">Guido Bolaffi. ''Dictionary of race, ethnicity and culture''. SAGE Publications Ltd., 2003. p. 332.</ref>
Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet as well as the human costs. They challenge directly traditional metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the [[Gini coefficient]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html|title=Poverty Analysis – Measuring Inequality|work=worldbank.org}}</ref> or the [[Happy Planet Index]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.happyplanetindex.org/ |title=The Happy Planet Index |publisher=Neweconomics.org |accessdate=2 June 2013}}</ref> and point to a "multitude of interconnected fatal consequences–social disintegration, a breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty and alienation"<ref name="The Hidden Connections">{{cite book | last = Capra | first = Fritjof | year = 2002 | title = The Hidden Connections | publisher=Random House | location = New York, New York | isbn = 0-385-49471-8}}</ref> which they claim are the [[unintended consequences]] of globalization. Others point out that, while the forces of globalization have led to the spread of western-style democracy, this has been accompanied by an increase in inter-ethnic tension and violence as free market economic policies combine with democratic processes of universal suffrage as well as an escalation in militarization to impose democratic principles and as a means to conflict resolution.<ref>Sorrells, Kathryn. Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2013. Print.</ref>
===Public opinion on globalization===
A 2005 study by Peer Fis and Paul Hirsch found a large increase in articles negative towards globalization in the years prior. In 1998, negative articles outpaced positive articles by two to one.<ref name="Fiss 2005">Fiss, Peer and Hirsch, Pal: "The Discourse of Globalization: Framing and Sensemaking of an Emerging Concept. American Sociological Review, February 2005. vol. 70 no 1: 29–52.</ref> The number of newspaper articles showing negative framing rose from about 10% of the total in 1991 to 55% of the total in 1999. This increase occurred during a period when the total number of articles concerning globalization nearly doubled.<ref name="Fiss 2005"/>
A number of international polls have shown that residents of Africa and Asia tend to view globalization more favorably than residents of Europe or North America. In Africa, a Gallup poll found that 70% of the population views globalization favorably.<ref>"Africans and Asians Tend to View Globalization Favorably. Europeans and Americans are More Skeptical". World Public Opinion.org. 7 November 2006.</ref> The BBC found that 50% of people believed that economic globalization was proceeding too rapidly, while 35% believed it was proceeding too slowly.<ref name=bbc08>{{cite web| title = Widespread Unease about Economy and Globalization – Global poll| author = BBC World Service| date = 2008| accessdate = 24 March 2015| url = http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/feb08/BBCEcon_Feb08_rpt.pdf| deadurl = yes| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140903173226/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/feb08/BBCEcon_Feb08_rpt.pdf| archivedate = 3 September 2014| df = dmy-all}}</ref>
In 2004, Philip Gordon stated that "a clear majority of Europeans believe that globalization can enrich their lives, while believing the European Union can help them take advantage of globalization's benefits while shielding them from its negative effects." The main opposition consisted of socialists, environmental groups, and nationalists. Residents of the EU did not appear to feel threatened by globalization in 2004. The EU job market was more stable and workers were less likely to accept wage/benefit cuts. Social spending was much higher than in the US.<ref>Gordon, Philip. 2004. [http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/globalization-europes-wary-embrace "Globalization: Europe's Wary Embrace"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629191739/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/globalization-europes-wary-embrace|date=29 June 2011}}. Yale Global, 1 November 2004.</ref> In a Danish poll in 2007, 76% responded that globalization is a good thing.<ref>Time Magazine: [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1684528,00.html Why Denmark Loves Globalisation]</ref>
Fiss, ''et al.'', surveyed US opinion in 1993. Their survey showed that, in 1993, more than 40% of respondents were unfamiliar with the concept of globalization. When the survey was repeated in 1998, 89% of the respondents had a polarized view of globalization as being either good or bad. At the same time, discourse on globalization, which began in the financial community before shifting to a heated debate between proponents and disenchanted students and workers. Polarization increased dramatically after the establishment of the WTO in 1995; this event and subsequent protests led to a large-scale anti-globalization movement.<ref name="Fiss 2005"/>
Initially, college educated workers were likely to support globalization. Less educated workers, who were more likely to compete with immigrants and workers in developing countries, tended to be opponents. The situation changed after the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|financial crisis of 2007]]. According to a 1997 poll 58% of college graduates said globalization had been good for the US. By 2008 only 33% thought it was good. Respondents with high school education also became more opposed.<ref name="ip08">Greg Ip: "The Declining Value Of Your College Degree", ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''. 17 July 2008.</ref>
According to Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi, {{as of|1998|lc=y}} there was a perception in Japan that the economy was "Small and Frail". However, Japan was resource-poor and used exports to pay for its raw materials. Anxiety over their position caused terms such as ''[[internationalization]]'' and ''globalization'' to enter everyday language. However, Japanese tradition was to be as self-sufficient as possible, particularly in agriculture.<ref>Takenaka Heizo and Chida Ryokichi. 1998. "Japan," ''Domestic Adjustments to Globalization''; (ed, Charles E. Morrison and Hadi Soesastro), Tokyo: Japan center for International Exchange, 1998, pp. 76–102.</ref>
Many in developing countries see globalization as a positive force that lifts them out of poverty.<ref name="bhagwati"/> Those opposing globalization typically combine environmental concerns with nationalism. Opponents consider governments as agents of [[neo-colonialism]] that are subservient to [[multinational corporations]].<ref name="visuality.org">{{cite journal |last=Shoa |first=S. Rajgopal |year=2002 |title=Reclaiming Democracy, the Anti-globalization Movement in South Asia |publisher=Feminist Review |issue=70 |url=http://visuality.org/globalization/wmst250_readings/the_antiglobalization_mvmnt.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514074310/http://visuality.org/globalization/wmst250_readings/the_antiglobalization_mvmnt.pdf |archivedate=14 May 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Much of this criticism comes from the middle class; the [[Brookings Institution]] suggested this was because the middle class perceived upwardly mobile low-income groups as threatening to their economic security.<ref>{{cite web |first=Carol |last=Graham |title=Winners and Losers: Perspectives on Globalization from the Emerging Market Economies |publisher=Brookings |date=1 January 2011 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2001/fall_globaleconomics_graham.aspx |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511180832/http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2001/fall_globaleconomics_graham.aspx |archivedate=11 May 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
=== Economics ===
[[File:20041120-1 bushchinamtg-1-515h.jpg|thumb|[[Hu Jintao]] of China and [[George W. Bush]] meet while attending an [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] summit in Santiago de Chile, 2004]]
The literature analysing the economics of free trade is extremely rich with extensive work having been done on the theoretical and empirical effects. Though it creates winners and losers, the broad consensus among economists is that free trade is a large and unambiguous net gain for society.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last1 = Fuller
|first1 = Dan
|last2=Geide-Stevenson
|first2= Doris
|title = Consensus Among Economists: Revisited
|journal = Journal of Economic Review
|volume = 34
|issue = 4
|pages = 369–87
|date = Fall 2003
|url =http://www.indiana.edu/~econed/pdffiles/fall03/fuller.pdf | doi = 10.1080/00220480309595230
|format=PDF}} {{registration required}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Friedman
|first=Milton
|authorlink=Milton Friedman
|title=The Case for Free Trade
|journal=[[Hoover Digest]]
|volume=1997
|issue=4
|page=42
|url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3550727.html
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122032127/http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/3550727.html
|archivedate=22 January 2007
|df=
|bibcode=1993SciAm.269e..42B
|year=1993
|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1193-42
}}</ref> In a 2006 survey of American economists (83 responders), "87.5% agree that the U.S. should eliminate remaining tariffs and other barriers to trade" and "90.1% disagree with the suggestion that the U.S. should restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries."<ref>{{Cite journal
|last = Whaples
|first = Robert
|title = Do Economists Agree on Anything? Yes!
|journal = The Economists' Voice
|volume = 3
|issue = 9
|year= 2006
|url =
|doi = 10.2202/1553-3832.1156
}}</ref>
Quoting Harvard economics professor [[N. Gregory Mankiw]], "Few propositions command as much consensus among professional economists as that open world trade increases economic growth and raises living standards."<ref>
{{cite web
|last = Mankiw
|first = Gregory
|title = Outsourcing Redux
|date= 7 May 2006
|url = http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/2006/05/outsourcing-redux.html
|accessdate = 22 January 2007
}}</ref> In a survey of leading economists, none disagreed with the notion that "freer trade improves productive efficiency and offers consumers better choices, and in the long run these gains are much larger than any effects on employment."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0dfr9yjnDcLh17m|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=1 July 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622104941/http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0dfr9yjnDcLh17m|archivedate=22 June 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Most economists would agree that although increasing returns to scale might mean that certain industry could settle in a geographical area without any strong economic reason derived from comparative advantage, this is not a reason to argue against free trade because the absolute level of output enjoyed by both "winner" and "loser" will increase with the "winner" gaining more than the "loser" but both gaining more than before in an absolute level.
In the book ''[[The End of Poverty]]'', Jeffrey Sachs discusses how many factors can affect a country's ability to enter the world market, including government [[Political corruption|corruption]]; legal and social disparities based on gender, ethnicity, or caste; diseases such as [[AIDS]] and [[malaria]]; lack of infrastructure (including transportation, communications, health, and trade); unstable political landscapes; [[protectionism]]; and geographic barriers.<ref name="The End of Poverty">{{cite book | last = Sachs | first = Jeffrey | year = 2005 | title = The End of Poverty | publisher=The Penguin Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 1-59420-045-9}}</ref> [[Jagdish Bhagwati]], a former adviser to the U.N. on globalization, holds that, although there are obvious problems with overly rapid development, globalization is a very positive force that lifts countries out of poverty by causing a virtuous economic cycle associated with faster economic growth.<ref name="bhagwati">{{cite book | last = Bhagwati | first = Jagdish | title = In Defense of Globalization | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004 | location = Oxford, New York | url =| isbn =978-0195330939}}</ref> However, economic growth does not necessarily mean a reduction in poverty; in fact, the two can coexist. Economic growth is conventionally measured using indicators such as [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and [[Gross national income|GNI]] that do not accurately reflect the growing disparities in wealth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Theories of Development, Third Edition: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives|last=Peet|first=Richard|last2=Hartwick|first2=Elaine|publisher=The Guilford Press|year=2015|isbn=1462519571|location=|page=2|quote=But economic growth can occur without touching problems like inequality or poverty when all the increase in income goes to a relatively few people.|via=}}</ref> Additionally, [[Oxfam International]] argues that poor people are often excluded from globalization-induced opportunities "by a lack of productive assets, weak infrastructure, poor education and ill-health;"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to International Development: Approaches, Actors, and Issues|last=Beaudet|first=Pierre|last2=Schafer|first2=Jessica|last3=Haslam|first3=Paul A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=019544020X|location=|page=112|quote=According to Oxfam International, the contrasting experiences of Latin America and East Asia illustrate that globalization-induced growth and poverty can co-exist. Even when the market expands, 'poor people are often excluded from opportunities by a lack of productive assets, weak infrastructure, poor education, and ill-health'|via=}}</ref> effectively leaving these marginalized groups in a [[poverty trap]]. Economist [[Paul Krugman]] is another staunch supporter of globalization and free trade with a record of disagreeing with many critics of globalization. He argues that many of them lack a basic understanding of [[comparative advantage]] and its importance in today's world.<ref>Conversi, Daniele (2009) '[http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/Globalization.pdf Globalization, ethnic conflict and nationalism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607191631/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/Globalization.pdf|date=7 June 2011}}', in B. Turner (ed.) Handbook of Globalization Studies. London: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis; Barkawi, Tarak (2005) Globalization and War. Rowman & Littlefield; Smith, Dennis (2006) Globalization: The Hidden Agenda. Cambridge: Polity Press. See also Barber, Benjamin R., [[Jihad vs. McWorld]]. Ballantine Books, 1996</ref>
[[File:Bill Gates MSC 2017.jpg|thumb|As of 2017, there were 2,754 U.S. dollar [[billionaire]]s worldwide, with a combined wealth of over {{US$|9.2{{nbsp}}trillion}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/may/15/number-of-billionaires-worldwide-wealth-x-census |title=Number of billionaires worldwide surged to 2,754 in 2017 |work=The Guardian|date=15 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>]]
The flow of migrants to advanced economic countries has been claimed to provide a means through which global wages converge. An IMF study noted a potential for skills to be transferred back to developing countries as wages in those a countries rise.<ref name="12th April 2000: IMF Publications"/> Lastly, the dissemination of knowledge has been an integral aspect of globalization. Technological innovations (or technological transfer) is conjectured to benefit most the developing and least developing countries (LDCs), as for example in the adoption of [[mobile phones]].<ref name="Saggi2002" />
There has been a rapid economic growth in Asia after embracing [[market orientation]]-based economic policies that encourage private [[property rights]], free enterprise and competition. In particular, in East Asian developing countries, [[GDP]] per head rose at 5.9% a year from 1975 to 2001 (according to 2003 [[Human Development Report]]<ref>{{cite web|year=2003|url= http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr03_complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2003|publisher=UNDP|accessdate=6 April 2013}}</ref> of UNDP). Like this, the British economic journalist [[Martin Wolf]] says that incomes of poor developing countries, with more than half the world's population, grew substantially faster than those of the world's richest countries that remained relatively stable in its growth, leading to reduced international inequality and the incidence of poverty.
Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active [[economic liberalization]] and international integration resulted in rising general welfare and, hence, reduced inequality. According to Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in [[standards of living]] and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermore, the reduction in [[fertility rate]] in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and investment.<ref name="Wolf2004">{{cite book|url= http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300107777|title= Why Globalization Works|publisher= [[Yale University Press]]|author= Martin Wolf|year= 2004|isbn= 978-0300102529|accessdate= 6 April 2013|deadurl= yes|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20130510120230/http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300107777|archivedate= 10 May 2013|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Consequently, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of [[child labor]]. Thus, despite seemingly unequal [[distribution of income]] within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.
[[File:Berg Ostry 2011 Chart 4.gif|thumb|left|Of the factors influencing the duration of [[economic growth]] in both developed and developing countries, [[Economic inequality|income equality]] has a more beneficial impact than trade openness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment.<ref name=BergOstryEE>{{Cite journal |last= Berg |first= Andrew G. |last2= Ostry |first2= Jonathan D. |year= 2011 |title= Equality and Efficiency |journal= Finance and Development |volume= 48 |issue= 3 |publisher= International Monetary Fund |url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/berg.htm |accessdate= 10 September 2012}}</ref>]]
Per capita [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth seems even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries seem to fare worse than the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s—18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial.<ref name="DDollar">{{cite web|author=Dollar, David|author2=Kraay, Aart|title=Trade, Growth, and Poverty|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/09/dollar.htm|work=Finance and Development|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>
The globalization of the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to the resurfacing of the idea that the growth of economic [[interdependence]] promotes peace.<ref>E.g. {{cite web |title=Globalisation promotes peace
|first1=Ju Hyun |last1=Pyun |first2=Jong-Wha |last2=Lee |date=21 March 2009 |url=http://www.voxeu.org/article/globalisation-promotes-peace}}</ref> This idea had been very powerful during the globalization of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was a central doctrine of [[classical liberals]] of that era, such as the young [[John Maynard Keynes]] (1883–1946).<ref>See, for example, [[Roy Harrod]], ''[[The Life of John Maynard Keynes]]'', Macmillan, 1951; [[Donald Markwell]], ''[[John Maynard Keynes]] and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace'', Oxford University Press, 2006. Keynes had colourfully described the globalization before World War I in ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'', Macmillan, 1919, chapter 2.</ref>
Some opponents of globalization see the phenomenon as a promotion of corporate interests.<ref>{{cite news|first=Laurence|last=Lee|title=WTO blamed for India grain suicides|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2ED53A8B-1058-49CF-B9FF-3D96639456D1.htm|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=17 May 2007|accessdate=17 May 2007}}</ref> They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of [[corporate entity|corporate entities]] shapes the political policy of countries.<ref name="The Corporation">{{cite book | last = Bakan | first = Joel | authorlink =Joel Bakan | year = 2004 | title = The Corporation | publisher=Simon & Schuster | location = New York, New York | isbn = 0-7432-4744-2}}</ref><ref name="Confessions of an Economic Hit Man">{{cite book | last = Perkins | first = John | authorlink = John Perkins (author)| year = 2004 | title = Confessions of an Economic Hit Man | publisher=Berrett-Koehler | location = San Francisco, California | isbn = 1-57675-301-8}}</ref> They advocate global institutions and policies that they believe better address the moral claims of poor and working classes as well as environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/index.php?cd_language=2&id_menu= |title=Fórum Social Mundial |publisher=Forumsocialmundial.org.br |accessdate=31 July 2010}}</ref> Economic arguments by [[fair trade]] theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more [[Leverage (finance)|financial leverage]] (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epi.org/publication/webfeatures_viewpoints_nafta_legacy_at10/|title=NAFTA at 10|work=Economic Policy Institute}}</ref>
Globalization allows corporations to [[outsource]] manufacturing and service jobs from high cost locations, creating economic opportunities with the most competitive wages and worker benefits.<ref name="Kuruvilla 2008 39–72"/> Critics of globalization say that it disadvantages poorer countries. While it is true that free trade encourages globalization among countries, some countries try to protect their domestic suppliers. The main export of poorer countries is usually [[agricultural production]]s. Larger countries often subsidize their [[Agricultural subsidy|farmers]] (e.g., the EU's [[Common Agricultural Policy]]), which lowers the market price for foreign crops.<ref name="Hurst E. Charles P.41">Hurst E. Charles. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and consequences, 6th ed. p. 41</ref>
===Global democracy===
{{Main|Democratic globalization}}
'''Democratic globalization''' is a movement towards an institutional system of global [[democracy]] that would give world citizens a say in political organizations. This would, in their view, bypass nation-states, corporate oligopolies, ideological [[Non-governmental organization]]s (NGO), political cults and mafias. One of its most prolific proponents is the British political thinker [[David Held]]. Advocates of [[democratic globalization]] argue that economic expansion and development should be the first phase of democratic globalization, which is to be followed by a phase of building [[International political economy|global political institutions]]. Dr. [[Francesco Stipo]], Director of the United States Association of the [[Club of Rome]], advocates unifying nations under a [[world government]], suggesting that it "should reflect the political and economic balances of world nations. A world confederation would not supersede the authority of the State governments but rather complement it, as both the States and the world authority would have power within their sphere of competence".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usacor.org/archive/index.html |title=USACOR.org |publisher=USACOR.org |date=28 July 2009 |accessdate=31 July 2010}}</ref> Former [[Senate of Canada|Canadian Senator]] [[Douglas Roche]], [[Order of Canada|O.C.]], viewed globalization as inevitable and advocated creating institutions such as a [[direct election|directly elected]] [[United Nations Parliamentary Assembly]] to exercise oversight over unelected international bodies.<ref>{{cite web|last=Roche|first=Douglas|title=The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly|url=http://www.wfm-igp.org/site/files/Roche_UN_Parliamentary_Assembly_2002.pdf|publisher=The World Federalist Movement–Institute for Global Policy|accessdate=28 May 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531054746/http://www.wfm-igp.org/site/files/Roche_UN_Parliamentary_Assembly_2002.pdf|archivedate=31 May 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
===Global civics===
{{Main|Global civics|Multiculturalism}}
{{See also|Global citizenship}}
Global civics suggests that [[civics]] can be understood, in a global sense, as a [[social contract]] between [[Global citizenship|global citizens]] in the age of interdependence and interaction. The disseminators of the concept define it as the notion that we have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other by the mere fact of being human on Earth.<ref name=case>{{Cite journal|last=Altinay |first=Hakan |title=The Case for Global Civics |journal=Global Economy and Development at Brookings |year=2010 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2010/03_global_civics_altinay.aspx |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603104201/http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2010/03_global_civics_altinay.aspx |archivedate=3 June 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref> [[World citizen]] has a variety of similar meanings, often referring to a person who disapproves of traditional [[geopolitical]] divisions derived from national [[citizenship]]. An early incarnation of this sentiment can be found in [[Socrates]], whom [[Plutarch]] quoted as saying: "I am not an Athenian, or a Greek, but a citizen of the world."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcitizens.org.au|title=World Citizens Association Australia|work=World Citizens Association Australia}}</ref> In an increasingly interdependent world, world citizens need a compass to frame their mindsets and create a shared consciousness and sense of global responsibility in world issues such as environmental problems and [[nuclear proliferation]].<ref name = feasible>{{cite journal | last = Altinay| first = Hakan| title= A Global Civics: Necessary? Feasible?| journal = Global Policy| date = June 2010| url = http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/articles/international-law-and-human-rights/global-civics-necessary-feasible}}</ref>
Baha'i-inspired author Meyjes, while favoring the single world community and emergent global consciousness, warns of globalization<ref>{{cite book| chapter = Language and Universalization: a ‘Linguistic Ecology’ Reading of Bahá’í Writ | first = Gregory Paul | last = Meyjes (also: Posthumus Meyjes) | title = The Journal of Bahá’í Studies | publisher = Association for Bahá’í Studies | series = | volume =Volume IX (1) | year =1999 | location = Ottawa | pages = 51–63 }}</ref> as a cloak for an expeditious economic, social, and cultural Anglo-dominance that is insufficiently inclusive to inform the emergence of an optimal world civilization. He proposes a process of "[[Universalism#Non-religious Universalism|universalization]]" as an alternative.
[[Cosmopolitanism]] is the proposal that all human ethnic groups belong to a single [[community]] based on a shared [[morality]]. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan or cosmopolite.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cosmopolitan|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cosmopolitan?s=t|work=Dictionary.com|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> A cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. The cosmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places (e.g. nation-states) form relationships based on mutual respect. For instance, [[Kwame Anthony Appiah]] suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.).<ref>Kwame Anthony Appiah, "Cosmopolitan Patriots," Critical Inquiry 23, no. 3 (Spring, 1997): 617–639.</ref>
Canadian philosopher [[Marshall McLuhan]] popularized the term ''[[Global village (term)|Global Village]]'' beginning in 1962.<ref>Marshall McLuhan and Bruce R. Powers (17 September 1992) The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st century . Oxford University Press: 17 September 1992</ref> His view suggested that globalization would lead to a world where people from all countries will become more integrated and aware of common interests and shared humanity.<ref>Chapman, Roger. ''Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices, Volume 1.'' 2009: M.E.Sharp</ref>
===International cooperation===
'''Military cooperation''' – Past examples of international cooperation exist. One example is the security cooperation between the United States and the former Soviet Union after the end of the Cold War, which astonished international society. Arms control and disarmament agreements, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (see [[START I]], [[START II]], [[START III]], and [[New START]]) and the establishment of [[NATO]]'s Partnership for Peace, the Russia NATO Council, and the [[G8]] Global Partnership against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction, constitute concrete initiatives of arms control and de-nuclearization. The US–Russian cooperation was further strengthened by anti-terrorism agreements enacted in the wake of 9/11.<ref name="globalpolicyjournal1">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/brookings-audit/international-cooperation-stepping-stone-world-government |title=International cooperation as a stepping-stone to a world government | Global Policy Journal – Practitioner, Academic, Global Governance, International Law, Economics, Security, Institutions, Comment & Opinion, Media, Events, Journal |publisher=Global Policy Journal |accessdate=15 June 2013}}</ref>
'''Environmental cooperation''' – One of the biggest successes of environmental cooperation has been the agreement to reduce chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions, as specified in the [[Montreal Protocol]], in order to stop ozone depletion. The most recent debate around nuclear energy and the non-alternative coal-burning power plants constitutes one more consensus on what not to do. Thirdly, significant achievements in IC can be observed through development studies.<ref name="globalpolicyjournal1"/>
===Anti-globalization movement===
{{Main|Anti-globalization movement}}
[[File:2016-04-23 Anti-TTIP-Demonstration in Hannover, (10118).jpg|thumb|Anti-[[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership|TTIP]] demonstration in [[Hannover]], Germany, 2016]]
Anti-globalization, or counter-globalization,<ref>[[Jacques Derrida]] (May 2004) ''[http://mondediplo.com/2004/11/06derrida Enlightenment past and to come]'', speech at the party for 50 years of ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]''</ref> consists of a number of criticisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the globalization of [[corporate capitalism]].<ref>Morris, Douglas "Globalization and Media Democracy: The Case of Indymedia", ''Shaping the Network Society'', [[MIT Press]] 2003. Courtesy link to (pre-publication version) [http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm FIS.utoronto.ca] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304030415/http://www3.fis.utoronto.ca/research/iprp/c3n/CI/DMorris.htm|date=4 March 2009}}</ref> The movement is also commonly referred to as the [[alter-globalization]] movement, anti-globalist movement, [[anti-corporate activism|anti-corporate]] globalization movement,<ref name=Juris>{{cite book | last = Juris | first = Jeffrey S. | title =Networking Futures: The Movements against Corporate Globalization | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham | year = 2008 | page = 2 | isbn = 978-0-8223-4269-4}}</ref> or movement against [[neoliberal]] globalization. Opponents of globalization argue that there is unequal power and respect in terms of international trade between the developed and underdeveloped countries of the world.<ref>Staggenborg, S. (2011). Social movements (Rev. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> The diverse subgroups that make up this movement include some of the following: trade unionists, environmentalists, anarchists, land rights and indigenous rights activists, organizations promoting human rights and sustainable development, opponents of privatization, and [[anti-sweatshop movement|anti-sweatshop]] campaigners.<ref name="stwr.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.stwr.org/the-un-people-politics/the-anti-globalization-movement-defined.htm|title=The Anti-Globalization Movement Defined Share The World's Resources|last=Engler|first=M.|date=30 May 2007|accessdate=14 March 2013}}{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}l</ref>
In ''The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy'', [[Christopher Lasch]] analyzes<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/the-treachery-of-the-lites-elite-sense-of-irresponsibility-1610879.html |title=The treachery of the lites Elite sense of irresponsibility |publisher=The Independent |date=1995-03-10 |accessdate=2018-09-19}}</ref> the widening gap between the top and bottom of the social composition in the United States. For him, our epoch is determined by a social phenomenon: the revolt of the elites, in reference to ''The revolt of the masses'' (1929) of the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset. According to Lasch, the new elites, i.e. those who are in the top 20% in terms of income, through globalization which allows total mobility of capital, no longer live in the same world as their fellow-citizens. In this, they oppose the old bourgeoisie of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which was constrained by its spatial stability to a minimum of rooting and civic obligations.
Globalization, according to the sociologist, has turned elites into tourists in their own countries. The de-nationalisation of business enterprise tends to produce a class who see themselves as "world citizens, but without accepting ... any of the obligations that citizenship in a polity normally implies". Their ties to an international culture of work, leisure, information – make many of them deeply indifferent to the prospect of national decline. Instead of financing public services and the public treasury, new elites are investing their money in improving their voluntary ghettos: private schools in their residential neighborhoods, private police, garbage collection systems. They have "withdrawn from common life".
Composed of those who control the international flows of capital and information, who preside over philanthropic foundations and institutions of higher education, manage the instruments of cultural production and thus fix the terms of public debate. So, the political debate is limited mainly to the dominant classes and political ideologies lose all contact with the concerns of the ordinary citizen. The result of this is that no one has a likely solution to these problems and that there are furious ideological battles on related issues.
However, they remain protected from the problems affecting the working classes: the decline of industrial activity, the resulting loss of employment, the decline of the middle class, increasing the number of the poor, the rising crime rate, growing drug trafficking, the urban crisis.
D.A. Snow et al. contend that the [[anti-globalization movement]] is an example of a [[new social movement]], which uses tactics that are unique and use different resources than previously used before in other social movements.<ref>Snow, D. A., Soule, S. A., & Kriesi, H. (2004). The Blackwell companion to social movements. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub..</ref>
One of the most infamous tactics of the movement is the [[Battle of Seattle (1999)|Battle of Seattle]] in 1999, where there were protests against the World Trade Organization's Third Ministerial Meeting. All over the world, the movement has held protests outside meetings of institutions such as the WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the World Economic Forum, and the Group of Eight (G8).<ref name="stwr.org"/> Within the Seattle demonstrations the protesters that participated used both creative and violent tactics to gain the attention towards the issue of globalization.
===Opposition to capital market integration===
{{Main|Anti-capitalist movements}}
[[File:Worldbank protest jakarta.jpg|thumb|World Bank Protester, [[Jakarta]], Indonesia]]
Capital markets have to do with raising and investing money in various human enterprises. Increasing integration of these [[financial market]]s between countries leads to the emergence of a global capital marketplace or a single world market. In the long run, increased movement of capital between countries tends to favor owners of capital more than any other group; in the short run, owners and workers in specific sectors in capital-exporting countries bear much of the burden of adjusting to increased movement of capital.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Invested Interests: The Politics of National Economic Policies in a World of Global Finance|last=Frieden|first=Jeffry A.|journal=[[International Organization]]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|issn=1531-5088|volume=45|issue=4|year=1991|pages=425–51|doi=10.1017/s0020818300033178|jstor=2706944|registration=y}}</ref>
Those opposed to capital market integration on the basis of [[human rights]] issues are especially disturbed by the various abuses which they think are perpetuated by global and international institutions that, they say, promote [[neoliberalism]] without regard to ethical standards. Common targets include the [[World Bank]] (WB), [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) and [[free trade]] treaties like the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] (FTAA), the [[Multilateral Agreement on Investment]] (MAI) and the [[General Agreement on Trade in Services]] (GATS). In light of the economic gap between rich and poor countries, movement adherents claim free trade without measures in place to protect the under-capitalized will contribute only to the strengthening the power of industrialized nations (often termed the "North" in opposition to the developing world's "South").{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}}
===Anti-corporatism and anti-consumerism===
{{Main|Anti-corporatism|Anti-consumerism}}
[[Corporatism|Corporatist]] ideology, which privileges the rights of corporations ([[Legal personality|artificial or juridical persons]]) over those of [[natural person]]s, is an underlying factor in the recent rapid expansion of global commerce.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2001/09/01/corporatism-goes-global | title=Corporatism Goes Global | author=Ottaway, Marina | journal=Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations | volume=7 | issue=3 | date=September 2001}}</ref> In recent years, there have been an increasing number of books ([[Naomi Klein]]'s 2000 ''[[No Logo]]'', for example) and films (''e.g. [[The Corporation (2003 film)|The Corporation]]'' & ''[[Surplus (film)|Surplus]]'') popularizing an [[Anti-corporate activism|anti-corporate]] [[ideology]] to the public.
A related contemporary ideology, [[consumerism]], which encourages the personal acquisition of goods and services, also drives globalization.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lived effects of the Contemporary Economy: Globalization, Inequality, and Consumer Society. | author=Storper Michael | journal=Public Culture | year=2000 | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=375–409 | doi=10.1215/08992363-12-2-375}}</ref> Anti-consumerism is a social movement against equating personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions. Concern over the treatment of consumers by large corporations has spawned substantial activism, and the incorporation of [[consumer education]] into school [[curriculum|curricula]]. Social activists hold materialism is connected to [[Big-box store|global retail merchandizing]] and [[supplier convergence]], [[war]], greed, [[anomie]], [[crime]], environmental degradation, and general social [[malaise]] and discontent. One variation on this topic is activism by ''postconsumers'', with the strategic emphasis on moving ''beyond'' addictive consumerism.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Collective dissonance and the transition to post-consumerism | author=Cohen, Maurie J. | journal=Futures |date=July 2013 | volume=52 | pages=42–51 | doi=10.1016/j.futures.2013.07.001}}</ref>
===Global justice and inequality===
====Global justice====
{{Main|Global justice movement}}
[[File:2014 Gini Index World Map, income inequality distribution by country per World Bank.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|left|Differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the national [[Gini coefficient]], 2014]]
The global justice movement is the loose collection of individuals and groups—often referred to as a "[[movement of movements]]"—who advocate [[fair trade]] rules and perceive current institutions of global economic integration as problems.<ref>Tom Mertes, "A Movement of Movements", New York: Verso, 2004</ref> The movement is often labeled an anti-globalization movement by the mainstream media. Those involved, however, frequently deny that they are [[anti-globalization]], insisting that they support the globalization of communication and people and oppose only the global expansion of corporate power.<ref>della Porta, D. 2005. "The Social Bases of the Global Justice Movement: Some Theoretical Reflections and Empirical Evidence from the First European Social Forum." Civil Society and Social Movements Programme Paper No. 21.Geneva: UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development).</ref> The movement is based in the idea of [[social justice]], desiring the creation of a society or institution based on the principles of [[social equality|equality]] and [[solidarity]], the values of human rights, and the dignity of every human being.<ref name="autogenerated2006">Education and Social Justice By J. Zajda, S. Majhanovich, V. Rust, 2006, {{ISBN|1-4020-4721-5}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2005">Nursing ethics: across the curriculum and into practice By Janie B. Butts, Karen Rich, Jones and Bartlett Publishers 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-7637-4735-0}}</ref><ref>[http://www.legislature.mi.gov/documents/mcl/pdf/mcl-act-135-of-2004.pdf Legal Birth Definition Act – Act 135 of 2004]</ref> [[Structural inequality|Social inequality]] within and between nations, including a growing [[global digital divide]], is a focal point of the movement. Many nongovernmental organizations have now arisen to fight these inequalities that many in Latin America, Africa and Asia face. A few very popular and well known [[non-governmental organizations]] (NGOs) include: [[War Child (charity)|War Child]], [[Red Cross]], [[Free The Children]] and [[CARE International]]. They often create partnerships where they work towards improving the lives of those who live in developing countries by building schools, fixing infrastructure, cleaning water supplies, purchasing equipment and supplies for hospitals, and other aid efforts.
[[File:Global Digital Divide1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[global digital divide]]: Computers per 100 people]]
====Social inequality====
{{Main|Social inequality|International inequality}}
The economies of the world have [[Development theory|developed]] unevenly, historically, such that entire geographical regions were left mired in poverty and disease while others began to reduce poverty and disease on a wholesale basis. From around 1980 through at least 2011, the GDP gap, while still wide, appeared to be closing and, in some more rapidly [[developing countries]], [[life expectancies]] began to rise.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24835822 | title=How much do you know about the world? | publisher=BBC | date=2013 | accessdate=9 July 2014 | author=Rosling, Hans| work=BBC News }}</ref> If we look at the Gini coefficient for world income, since the late 1980s, the gap between some regions has markedly narrowed—between Asia and the advanced economies of the West, for example—but huge gaps remain globally. Overall equality across humanity, considered as individuals, has improved very little. Within the decade between 2003 and 2013, income inequality grew even in traditionally egalitarian countries like Germany, Sweden and Denmark. With a few exceptions—France, Japan, Spain—the top 10 percent of earners in most advanced economies raced ahead, while the bottom 10 percent fell further behind.<ref name="Stiglitz">{{cite news | url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/10/13/inequality-is-a-choice/?_php=true&_type=blogs | title=Inequality is a Choice | date=13 October 2013 | accessdate=9 July 2014 | author=Stiglits Joseph E. | location=New York Times}}</ref> By 2013, a tiny elite of multibillionaires, 85 to be exact, had amassed wealth equivalent to all the wealth owned by the poorest half (3.5 billion) of the world's total population of 7 billion.<ref name="WEF2014">{{cite web | url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GAC_GlobalAgendaOutlook_2014.pdf | title=Outlook on the Global Agenda 2014 | publisher=World Economic Forum | accessdate=9 July 2014}}</ref>
Critics of globalization argue that globalization results in weak [[trade union|labor unions]]: the surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever-growing number of companies in transition weakened labor unions in high-cost areas. Unions become less effective and workers their enthusiasm for unions when membership begins to decline.<ref name="Hurst E. Charles P.41"/> They also cite an increase in the exploitation of [[child labour|child labor]]: countries with weak protections for children are vulnerable to infestation by rogue companies and criminal gangs who exploit them. Examples include [[quarry]]ing, salvage, and farm work as well as trafficking, bondage, forced labor, prostitution and pornography.<ref name="Edmonds_Pavcni">{{cite journal | last = Pavcnik | first = Nina |date=September 2005 | title = Child Labor in the Global Economy | journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 199–220 | doi = 10.1257/0895330053147895 | last2 = Pavcnik | first2 = Nina | ref = harv}}</ref>
[[File:May Day Immigration March LA60.jpg|thumb|upright|Immigrant rights march for amnesty, [[Los Angeles]], on [[International Workers' Day|May Day]], 2006]]
Women often participate in the workforce in [[precarious work]], including [[export-oriented employment]]. Evidence suggests that while globalization has expanded women's access to employment, the long-term goal of transforming [[Gender inequality|gender inequalities]] remains unmet and appears unattainable without regulation of capital and a reorientation and expansion of the state's role in funding public goods and providing a social safety net.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seguino|first1=Stephanie|last2=Grown|first2=Caren|date=November 2006|title=Gender equity and globalization: macroeconomic policy for developing countries|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=18|issue=8|pages=1081–104|doi=10.1002/jid.1295|ref=harv|author-link1=Stephanie Seguino|citeseerx=10.1.1.589.4614}} [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/Seguino_GrownGenderEquityandGlobalizationJID.pdf Pdf version – via the World Bank.]</ref> Furthermore, the intersectionality of gender, race, class, and more remain overlooked when assessing the impact of globalization.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization : economics as if all people mattered|last=Lourdes|first=Benería|others=Berik, Günseli,, Floro, Maria|isbn=9780415537483|edition= Second|location=New York|oclc=903247621}}</ref>
In 2016, a study published by the IMF posited that [[neoliberalism]], the ideological backbone of contemporary globalized capitalism, has been "oversold", with the benefits of neoliberal policies being "fairly difficult to establish when looking at a broad group of countries" and the costs, most significantly higher income inequality within nations, "hurt the level and sustainability of growth."<ref>{{cite news |last=Foroohar |first=Rana |date=June 3, 2016 |title=Globalization's True Believers Are Having Second Thoughts|url=http://time.com/4356816/neoliberalism-imf-globalization/|work=TIME|location= |access-date=July 12, 2018 }}</ref>
===Anti-global governance===
{{Main|Global governance}}
Beginning in the 1930s, opposition arose to the idea of a world government, as advocated by organizations such as the [[World Federalist Movement]] (WFM). Those who oppose global governance typically do so on objections that the idea is unfeasible, inevitably oppressive, or simply unnecessary.<ref>Kennedy, Paul. (2006.) ''The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations.'' New York: Harper Collins. {{ISBN|978-0375501654}}</ref> In general, these opponents are wary of the concentration of power or wealth that such governance might represent. Such reasoning dates back to the founding of the [[League of Nations]] and, later, the [[United Nations]].
===Environmentalist opposition===
[[File:Madagascar highland plateau.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation]] of the [[Madagascar]] Highland Plateau has led to extensive [[siltation]] and unstable flows of western [[river]]s.]]
{{Main|Environmentalism}}
{{See also|Global warming|Climate change|Deforestation}}
[[Environmentalism]] is a broad philosophy, ideology<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/ideology.html |title=Ideology and Sustainability |publisher=Formal.stanford.edu |accessdate=13 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Ronald Bailey from the February 2002 issue |url=http://reason.com/archives/2002/02/01/debunking-green-myths |title=Debunking Green Myths |publisher=Reason.com |accessdate=13 June 2012}}</ref><ref>Donald Gibson. Environmentalism: Ideology and Power. Nova Science Pub Inc. 2003</ref> and social movement regarding concerns for environmental [[Conservation movement|conservation]] and improvement of the health of the [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. Environmentalist concerns with globalization include issues such as [[global warming]], [[climate change]], global [[water supply]] and [[Water crisis|water crises]], inequity in [[energy consumption]] and [[energy conservation]], transnational [[air pollution]] and pollution of the [[world ocean]], [[overpopulation]], world [[habitat]] [[sustainability]], [[deforestation]], [[biodiversity]] and [[species extinction]].
One critique of globalization is that natural resources of the poor have been systematically taken over by the rich and the pollution promulgated by the rich is systematically dumped on the poor.<ref>Low, Nicholas. (2002). ''Global Ethics and Environment''. Routledge Science. {{ISBN|978-0415197359}}.</ref> Some argue that Northern corporations are increasingly exploiting resources of less wealthy countries for their global activities while it is the South that is disproportionately bearing the environmental burden of the globalized economy. Globalization is thus leading to a type of" environmental [[apartheid]]".<ref>Lechner, Frank J., and John Boli. 2012. ''The Globalization Reader'', 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0470655634}}.</ref>
[[Helena Norberg-Hodge]], the director and founder of Local Futures/[[International Society for Ecology and Culture]], criticizes globalization in many ways. In her book ''[[Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh|Ancient Futures]]'', Norberg-Hodge claims that "centuries of ecological balance and social harmony are under threat from the pressures of development and globalization." She also criticizes the standardization and rationalization of globalization, as it does not always yield the expected growth outcomes. Although globalization takes similar steps in most countries, scholars such as Hodge claim that it might not be effective to certain countries and that globalization has actually moved some countries backward instead of developing them.<ref>{{cite book|last=Norberg-Hodge|first=Helena|title=Ancient futures : learning from Ladakh|year=1992|publisher=Sierra Club Books|location=San Francisco|isbn=0871566435|edition= Sierra Club Books paperback}}</ref>
==External links==
A related area of concern is the [[pollution haven hypothesis]], which posits that, when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad, they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require (see [[Race to the bottom]]).<ref name="Unmaskingthe">{{cite journal|last=Levinson|first=Arik|author2=M. Scott Taylor|title=Unmasking the Pollution Haven Effect|journal=[[International Economic Review]]|year=2008|volume=49|issue=1|pages=223–54|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2354.2008.00478.x}}</ref> This often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices. Developing countries with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent [[Environmental law|environmental regulations]], and conversely, nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards. Thus, companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to (re)locate to the countries with the lowest [[environmental standard]]s or weakest enforcement.
===Sites critical of the U.N. and globalism===
== Food security ==
{{Main|Food security}}
The globalization of food production is associated with a more efficient system of food production. This is because crops are grown in countries with optimum growing conditions. This improvement causes an increase in the world's food supply which encourages improved food security.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5160e.pdf|title=Food Security and International Trade Unpacking disputed narratives|last=Clapp|first=J|date=|website=|access-date=}}</ref>
===Further reading on the topic matter===
=== Norway ===
Norway's limited crop range advocates globalization of food production and availability. The northern-most country in Europe requires trade with other countries to ensure population food demands are met. The degree of self-sufficiency in food production is around 50% in Norway.<ref>Flaten and Hisano, 2007. Food Security Policy in a Food Importing Country: The Case of Norway</ref>
==Further reading==
==See also==
* Jagdish Bhagwati, ''In Defense of Globalization'' (2004)
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Civilizing mission]]
* [[Cosmopolitanism]]
* [[Deglobalization]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[Franchising]]
* [[Free trade]]
* [[Global civics]]
* [[Global commons]]
* [[Global mobility]]
* [[Globalism]]
* [[Global public good]]s
* [[List of bilateral free-trade agreements]]
* [[List of globalization-related indices]]
* [[List of multilateral free-trade agreements]]
* [[Middle East and globalization]]
* [[Neorealism (international relations)]]
* [[North–South divide]]
* [[Outline of globalization]]
* [[Postdevelopment theory]]
* [[Purple economy]]
* [[Technocapitalism]]
* [[Transnational cinema]]
* [[Transnational citizenship]]
* [[Triadization]]
* [[United Nations Millennium Declaration]]
* ''[[Vermeer's Hat]]''
* [[World Englishes]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|globalization}}
{{Wiktionary|globalisation|globalization}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* [http://www.polity.co.uk/global/whatisglobalization.asp Comprehensive discussion of the term at the Site Global Transformations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026043416/http://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/ Globalization Website (Emory University) Links, Debates, Glossary etc.]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2007/globalisation/default.stm BBC News Special Report – "Globalisation"]
* {{Guardian topic}}
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/globalization/ "Globalization" ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''] Analysis of the idea and its history.
* [http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AFA_CALC_IN3 OECD Globalization statistics]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~mapglobe/HTML/home.html Mapping Globalization, Princeton University]
* [http://www.dataworldwide.org/websites/data_indexes.htm List of Global Development Indexes and Rankings]
{{Globalization|state=expanded}}
{{Trade|state=collapsed}}
{{Aspects of capitalism}}
{{Liberalism}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Globalism]]
[[Category:Globalization| ]]
[[Category:Theories of history]]
[[Category:Economic geography]]
[[Category:Cultural geography]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Interculturalism]]
[[Category:World history]]